Changes in Culinary Practices over Time: Through the Ages Project Part 9 of 10

By Jacob Lindbert

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Introduction

Over time, culinary practices have changed, reflecting developments in technology, culture, and trade. How people eat and what they eat are largely shaped by culture and how food is viewed within a community. Early cooking practices were influenced by the need for survival, while modern practices allow for more creativity and innovation. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans introduced more refined methods such as baking, boiling, and fermenting, while modern civilizations have developed new methods and applications for cooking through technology. This paper will dive into the changes in food and culinary practices throughout time and how they shaped local communities and culture.

Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, the basis of food was barley, wheat, and vegetables. These core foods built the foundation for the Egyptian diet. Meat was eaten on occasion, but was typically expensive and not affordable for the common person. The major meals consisted of bread and porridge made from wheat and barley. Because bread was so important, many different varieties were invented, often including different ingredients for flavor. Fruits and vegetables were another staple, adding protein to the diet with the limited access to meat. Lentils, beans, and peas added both fiber and protein to porridges and soups, while garden vegetables like onions, lettuce, cucumbers, garlic, and radishes were common (King, 2024). Other protein supplements included eggs and dairy products. This led to cheesemaking being a key culinary practice that was practiced by most to add additional foods to the daily diet. With regards to fishing, freshwater fish, like carp, catfish, Nile salmon, and eels, could be found in rivers and lakes (King, 2024). These fish would be smoked and dried to help preserve them from the hot climate. The Egyptians also ate a variety of sweets, including cakes and pastries that would typically be made using nuts, fruits, and other sweet syrups.

Popular drinks included beer, which was often brewed at home and consumed with meals. These beers typically had low alcohol content and were consumed throughout the entirety of the day. Different beer varieties were created through the addition of fruits or spices. Wines were also created using grapes, dates, and figs. These drinks were very common and popular in Egyptian culture, consumed daily with meals, at events and festivals, and when spending time with family or friends.

Very little has been discovered with relation to ancient Egyptian recipes, although artwork has helped researchers build diet models. Simple methods of preparation like soups, stews, and casseroles appear to have been the most popular (King, 2024). They also used culinary practices, including boiling, roasting, baking, and frying, to cook meats and other foods. Essential additions to the diet were spices and seasonings to provide flavors to the foods. These included herbs like dill, parsley, and thyme, along with nuts, vegetable oils, and animal fats. Kitchenware typically consisted of stone and clay to make pots and utensils, although what individuals had access to was largely dependent on class. People would typically eat together, seated on stools or the floor, eating from communal dishes or bowls. They would use clay cups and wooden utensils to eat, enjoying the accompaniment of family and friends.

Ancient Greece

The geography of ancient Greece largely shaped its diet. Much of the terrain was mountainous, leading to limited land to grow crops on. Because of this, farmers typically built terraces on hillsides to reduce soil erosion and improve irrigation. They also practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility and used tools like plows and hoes to foster improved plant growth. With the limited amount of growable land, farming land ownership was a major point of contention. Smaller farmers would work their land while larger farmers would have additional help in the form of slaves or paid laborers.

Key crops consisted of barley, wheat, olive trees, and grapes. Each of these was able to grow well in the local environment and was instrumental to Greek cuisine. Barley and wheat were grown to make bread and porridge, which were what many ate for survival due to their low cost. Olive trees produced olives, which were used to create olive oil, a versatile product used in cooking, lighting lamps, religious rituals, and personal grooming (World History Edu, 2025). Grapes were grown to produce wine, which was a staple of Greek culture. Other popular foods included figs, apples, pears, and herbs like oregano, thyme, and mint.

In addition to crops, Greeks would consume livestock and their products to survive. Cattle were raised primarily for milk, and on occasion, would be consumed for their meat. Like ancient Egypt, cheesemaking was very important and provided additional foods that could be incorporated into diets. Chicken, pigs, and geese would be raised for their meat and eggs. Bees were also highly valued for their honey and beeswax, which could be used for candles, as sweeteners, and more. As a whole, the diet heavily relied on vegetables and dairy products. Meat was typically reserved for special occasions or sacrifices. 

Ancient Rome

The Ancient Roman diet was expanded compared to earlier periods. Much of this was because of improved trading routes with neighboring areas. The most notable trade route was the Silk Road connecting Rome to the east, bringing spices, silk, and other luxury goods to the heart of the Roman Empire (Ancient Societies, 2025). Another influential trade route was the Maritime Trade, which facilitated the transport of goods like olive oil, wine, and fish products to Rome (Ancient Societies, 2025). Through these trade routes, Romans were able to gain access to goods and foods that they would not have otherwise had access to, diversifying their diets and culinary practices.

Many of the core foods remained the same as earlier periods, including wheat, barley, vegetables, fruits, meats, and spices. Wheat and barley were mostly used to make breads, porridges, and cereals. Vegetables and fruits, including onions, garlic, grapes, apples, and figs, were very popular and often used in dishes either as sides or to provide improved flavor. Meat and fish were still usually only enjoyed on special occasions, but remained important for society. Spices were widely used to enhance flavors and change the monotony of a similar diet each day. Like earlier periods, wine and beer held important cultural significance, although there are many documents showcasing alcohol abuse. During festivals, events, and other celebrations, wine would be distributed for free or at a very low cost, leading to the often excessive intake of alcohol (Hanson, 2017).

Ancient Romans used a variety of cooking techniques to prepare the food they had available. Boiling was a popular technique to prepare grains and legumes, and is how porridges were made. Roasting meat over an open flame was the primary way of cooking meat and fish, adding spices to bring out flavors. Many desserts and pastries were cooked by baking, while dishes were often cooked by stewing in large pots, allowing flavors and spices to be added and mixed. Social gatherings often revolved around meals, and culinary traditions were integral to Roman culture (Ancient Societies, 2025).

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages marked a period of diverse culinary practices as many societies and cultures were involved during this time period. From the Roman Empire’s conquests to the Silk Road trade routes, medieval cuisine encompassed a variety of flavors/ingredients sourced from various places around the world (Anastasiia, 2024). In all, many of the foods discussed in previous sections are the same, with vegetables and fruits playing a major role in society.

Culinary practices during the time reflected the values and culture of the time. Religious beliefs shaped dietary restrictions, which in turn impacted what foods could be consumed. Preservation methods like salting and smoking were crucial in preserving foods for the future since refrigerators were not around. Rituals often played an important role in dining practices and how food could be consumed. These meals were typically communal events that brought people together in an effort to promote unity and respect.

One significant advancement came in the form of how beer and wine were created. In many earlier periods, beer and wine were home-brewed and typically low in alcohol content. During the Middle Ages, monasteries became centers for brewing and winemaking. Here, the art of brewing became the work of monks, where they made several key discoveries, such as using hops as an ingredient (Hanson, 2017). Hops served as a flavor and preservative for beer, allowing it to be saved and stored for longer periods of time before turning sour. Most importantly, the process of distillation was outlined during this time. This allowed for the brewing and creation of even more types of alcoholic beverages and laid the foundation for future alcohol creation.

Renaissance

The Renaissance was a time of rapid educational growth and the development of many discoveries. For most, bread remained the food of choice, ranging from white bread consumed by the upper classes to wheat bran eaten by the lower classes. Rice was consumed in some areas, while peaches and melons were introduced into other diets. Salads became popular during that time, differing in specific content based on what was available in that particular area. Meat, milk, and eggs remained popular, along with pork, fish, and even peacocks, having roles in their diet. In the Baltic and Mediterranean regions, people regularly ate fish, including sardines, cod, and tuna, and would consume porpoise and whale when caught.

Sugar was considered to be a spice and was predominantly used by the rich since it was very costly. With Christopher Columbus's successful sailing to America, a variety of new spices and foods were introduced. He brought back tomatoes, potatoes, chocolate, turkey, squash, coffee, and tea (Dattler, 2018). Many of these foods were new and transformed the diet and intake of people throughout Europe and the rest of the world. As trade continued, more foods and goods were shared with one another, adding to daily intakes. With the variety of new foods, a variety of cookbooks started getting written and published. These shared cooking methods and recipes for some of the new foods that were introduced, along with sharing how different cooking techniques can generate different flavors.

With the process of distillation being outlined during the Middle Ages, many developments were made during the Renaissance period. In particular, the creation of many popular types of alcohol was developed, including champagne, whiskey, gin, and rum. Champagne was created during the 17th century and was enjoyed and popular because of the bubbles within it. By the 16th century, whiskey was widely consumed throughout parts of Europe and was very popular in Ireland and Scotland. Gin was created using Juniper berries and was initially used for medicinal purposes, but it quickly grew into a popular French and English drink. Lastly, Rum was produced using molasses and became New England’s largest and most prosperous industry (Hanson, 2017).

Modern Age

As time has gone on, vegetables, spices, meats, etc., have been used to create a wide variety of new foods. New types of cheeses, peanut butter, yogurts, and much more have been created, adding variation to diets that did not previously exist in past civilizations. Much of this development has been facilitated by the development of new cooking appliances. While the basics have largely stayed the same with regards to boiling, roasting, and baking being key cooking practices, today, people have a variety of new tools and technologies to cook.

The development of the refrigerator by General Electric (GE) in 1927 transformed how food could be stored (Hardy, 2023). This decreased the rate of spoilage for many foods and allowed individuals and families to keep foods for longer periods of time. Another key development was the creation of the stove. Before the stove, people relied on open fires for cooking and heating, which could be dangerous and inefficient at cooking things uniformly. The first stoves were closed metal boxes that made cooking safer, fostered improved heat distribution, and increased fuel efficiency (Thermo History, 2025). In addition to improved cooking ability, stoves also served a key role in heating homes and keeping individuals warm when it was cold out. Before the stove, heating homes was a challenge and relied on fireplaces, but with the invention of the stove, entire rooms or even entire houses could be warmed. The invention of the stove led to many other cooking appliances, including the microwave, toaster oven, and many more. This has revolutionized how individuals are able to store, cook, and consume different foods.

With the rise of new appliances and technology, new innovative cooking techniques have been developed. One such example is sous vide cooking, which involves vacuum sealing foods in bags and cooking them at precise temperatures in a water bath. This is able to yield improved flavors of foods and increased cooking efficiency with regard to time and labor spent. Another new technique is molecular gastronomy, which connects science with traditional cooking. Examples include foam creation, where chefs can create foams with distinctive flavors and textures, and liquid nitrogen, enabling rapid freezing and texture changes of foods (Naudi, 2023). Another newer and innovative method includes the demand for plant-based foods. Using science, vegetables can be treated like proteins and grilled, seared, or roasted to give the appearance of meat. Additionally, advances in plant-based components have resulted in the invention of molecular substitutes like dairy-free cheeses and meat substitutes for plants, enabling the development of plant-based copies of traditional recipes (Naudi, 2023).

Conclusion

As a whole, the evolution of culinary practices has reflected changes in trade, culture, and technology. From early diets of vegetables, fruits, and dairy to highly processed diets of today, food has changed in significant ways. The development of trade routes introduced new foods and goods into communities, adding to the spreading of cultures. Starting in the Middle Ages, new methods of distillation and preservation transformed how food and alcohol could be consumed. Modern times have ushered in a new era of culinary creativity, fueled by technological innovations such as refrigeration, stoves, and advanced cooking techniques like sous vide and molecular gastronomy. Ultimately, culinary practices have shaped communities, bringing people together through traditions and family that continues to evolve and exist today.

Sources

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