Changes in Military Strategies over Time: Through the Ages Project Part 8 of 10

By Jacob Lindbert

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Introduction

Military weaponry and strategies have experienced vast transformations throughout history. Many of these developments were shaped by technological advancements, global wars and politics, and the pursuit of advancement. From early hand-to-hand and close-quartered fighting of early centuries to the drone strikes, nuclear weaponry, and cyber warfare of today, the ways wars are fought have significantly changed. These changes are important to study as they have each made their unique mark on the history of the world. This paper will dive into the evolution of strategies and warfare throughout the ages.

Ancient Egypt

In ancient times, military strategies were centrally focused on large-scale infantry formations and direct combat with opposing forces. Much of the early Egyptian warfare was internal, requiring a strong leader and military force to keep the country together in spite of civil unrest. As Ancient Egypt grew in size, regular wars were fought with surrounding nations in efforts to grow their kingdom and gain increased power, control, and resources.

During the Old Kingdom, the military was a largely makeshift force of men from different monarchs conscripted into fighting. The soldiers fought for the king and their country, but they were not a united Egyptian army fighting for a common goal (Mark, 2016). As monarchs gained and lost power, many would become greedy, building statues for themselves rather than the king, and use their soldiers to fight for the crown. This went on for several hundred years, until Amenemhat I took power and created Egypt’s first standing army. This took power from the monarchs and created a more centralized system of control.

The Old Kingdom's primary weapons included maces, daggers, and spears. As time went on, bows and arrows and shields were added, changing the way battles were waged. Many of these weapons were rudimentary, and the soldiers were inexperienced. As the old kingdom turned into the middle kingdom period, military advancements were made in the form of copper axes, swords, and bronze spears. These were paired with body armor and much more organization and training for soldiers. The army was better organized with a minister of war and a commander in chief of the army, and these professional troops were highly trained (Mark, 2016). As military tactics became more advanced and soldier training more developed, distinct divisions were developed, including scouts, light infantry, heavy infantry, and cavalry. Each of these groups served a unique role in warfare, allowing for more complex battle plans and tactics. The addition of chariot fighting added even more unique soldiers to the Egyptian army, allowing them to build their kingdom and conquer more lands.

In addition to the army, the Egyptian’s developed a navy that both protected Egypt from foreign invaders and served as a mode of transporting soldiers for battle. The latter was the primary function of the navy, quickly transporting soldiers to different areas to jump into battle. The true value of the Egyptian navy was intimidation of potential invaders and the transport of land troops quickly (Mark, 2016). Nearly no documented fighting took place on water by the ships, and instead was between the soldiers that occupied the ships. This meant the early boats were very basic without sophisticated or established weaponry and were used more as a show of power than actual military force.

The fall of the Ancient Egyptian kingdom came as a result of inefficient weaponry and civil upheaval. Many turned to iron weapons, which were more expensive without any significant advantage in warfare. The Persians defeated the Egyptian army, followed by Alexander the Great, and then it continued to bounce between rulers until becoming an established country again many years later.

Ancient Greece 

In Ancient Greece, war was viewed as a necessary evil, with the rewards of war outweighing the cost of materials or lives. Early Greek wars involved small-scale skirmishes between neighboring city-states, where militias were under the control of private individuals. These militias were made up of part-time soldiers who often had rudimentary weapons. As time went on, warfare shifted into larger, organized campaigns involving complex partnerships and alliances. The pillar of the Greek army was the hoplite, a soldier who carried a long spear, a short sword, a bronze shield, and armor if able to afford it. Other warriors, called peltasts, would be armed with short javelins and light armor. As time moved on, lighter troops such as archers and javelin throwers were introduced, challenging the dominance of hoplites and allowing for greater tactical flexibility. Cavalry remained limited due to Greece’s terrain, but became more prominent with future innovations. Each of these roles was unique and instrumental in its own unique way to the success of military outcomes.

City-states, including Athens, Corinth, and Rhodes, created fleets of warships that would foster lucrative trading relationships and allow for troops to be moved to foreign areas and establish new colonies (Cartwright, 2018). The most notable ship was called the trireme, a light, fast ship designed for ramming enemy vessels. These ships were very expensive to make and had no spare room, so they had to be docked every night so the crew could sleep. Naval strategies focused on maneuverability, utilizing formations like the periplous and diekplous to outflank or break enemy lines.

Battle strategies relied heavily on religion, planning, sieges, and more. Before the first act of fighting would take place, rituals were undergone to determine the will of the gods. Consults with Apollo and animal sacrifices were crucial to determine if campaigns would be successful. When these rituals were complete, fighting would commence. Land fighting was often done using the formation of the phalanx, where every man protected both themselves and his neighbor with the large shield they carried. These units would move in unison, reducing any one individual from being overly exposed to the enemy. As cities began to be more developed, fighting moved away from open fields and more towards siege warfare. As cities built walls, military towers, moats, and more defenses, attacking troops had to become more advanced as well. Attackers developed siege towers, artillery, and even flamethrowers. Even with these advancements, the primary objective of a siege was to starve those in the city and force a surrender. As battles were fought and wars won, the victors would claim the spoils of war. They would collect any available silver, gold, weaponry, armor, etc. that held any value, dedicating certain amounts to the gods and keeping the rest for personal gain.  

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire remains one of the most well-known and respected empires of history. Their military power was instrumental in their expansion and creation, from their advancements in weaponry to complex training and military strategies. The Romans relied on complex formations and military structures, utilizing the manipular system of many smaller, more mobile units called maniples, consisting of 120 men, divided into two centuries of 60 men each (history tools, 2024). As the empire’s enemies became more advanced, the army’s organization became even more sophisticated, with reforms from Gaius Marius professionalizing the military and creating standardized training and equipment. With the development of large legions of 5,000 men, each further subdivided into 10 cohorts, divided into 6 centuries, divided into 10 conteubernium. This hierarchical structure fostered clear lines of communication where each unit had the ability to operate independently and efficiently on the battlefield. Individual training was also much more advanced during this period. All soldiers would undergo training in marching, formations, the use of swords, javelins, shields, setting up and breaking down camp, constructing makeshift bridges and roads, etc. This training instilled collective discipline, endurance, and identity, all of which were essential for maintaining cohesion in the face of battle (history tools, 2024).

The Romans developed several new military formations that made their military prowess unlike any seen before. One of the most effective was called the testudo formation and involved soldiers interlocking their shields to create a nearly impenetrable wall. This formation was often used during sieges, allowing the soldiers to get to the city walls safely. Another prominent innovation was the triple line formation, which consisted of three lines of soldiers with the most seasoned troops at the back of the line and less-seasoned fighters at the front. This formation allowed for a large degree of flexibility on the battlefield, where gaps would be filled by more experienced soldiers, preventing any critical openings from forming. A third technique was the wedge formation, where soldiers would form a triangular shape and launch a concentrated attack at a weak point in an enemy’s line. As the wedge broke through the enemy line, the enemy troops would be cut off into smaller groupings, allowing the Romans to create chaos on the battlefield.

Roman tactics heavily relied on the integration of combined arms—infantry, cavalry, and artillery—paired with advanced engineering skills. The army's use of artillery like ballistae would weaken enemy defenses, while cavalry provided critical reconnaissance and flanking maneuvers. The engineering of rapid bridges, siege engines, fortifications, and more allowed for unmatched mobility on the battlefield. The impacts of the Roman military have been far-reaching. Their tactics, training, formations, etc., have served as a model for future countries and militaries to build upon.

Middle Ages

Medieval military strategies consisted of a variety of different factors, with the presence of empires, city-states, and other religious orders holding power. Battles would range from small skirmishes and raids to full sieges of castles and other fortified cities. The art of sieges improved during this time, with tools like battering rams and catapults having enhanced engineering to combat the defensive advantage that a fortified city or castle provided (Cohen, 2019). Many of these battles were similar to those of earlier periods, with general weaponry and tactics staying largely the same. The major developments were in the weapons themselves, with new siege weaponry and advanced swords, shields, and armor being created, yielding more durable troops.

One of the most well-known soldiers of this time was the European knight, clad in a full set of armor with swords, shields, and other weaponry. Knights were often connected with royalty, either being born into nobility or being bestowed a knighthood by the rulers of the country. During this time, horses, weapons, and armor were costly. With knights typically owning all three, it was oftentimes necessary for a knight to be well-connected in society, being both a skilled warrior but also one intertwined with the elaborate social structures. Other troops consisted of light cavalry and infantry. Light cavalry often were used as scouts or flankers, and were lighter-armored soldiers, while infantry consisted of the general soldier who may wield a variety of weaponry. The advancement of the medieval bow was a powerful new type of ranged weaponry that required many years of training to master. This bow differed from the crossbow and others in that it possessed a greater range of distances at which it could be fired. This allowed for more versatility on the battlefield, with more developed weaponry serving as a hallmark of this period of time.

Renaissance

The Renaissance period was a time of great political, social, religious, economic, cultural, and military growth. The development of new technologies yielded new weaponry and radicalized how wars were fought. The landscape of Europe drove forward many wars, with many areas fighting one another and seeking power and gold. As a whole, this period drifted away from the feudal warfare of the Middle Ages that had relied on poorly trained soldiers. Instead, it focused on innovation, incorporating more coordinated and advanced military strategies and tactics. Army personnel became more diverse, including pikemen, larger numbers of cavalry, and cannons. The development of firearms and later the wheel-lock pistol replaced bows, transitioning the way battles were fought. These firearms utilized a cock and a trigger, the cock having a hole in it to hold a match, so when the trigger was pulled, the match would cause the powder to ignite and discharge the metal bullet (Military History, 2022). While many of these early firearms had limited range, they were instrumental on the battlefield, and infantry and cavalry would regularly carry multiple into battle with them.

Early Renaissance period armies were also well-trained and full of professional soldiers. These armies typically were composed of hired troops who fought for financial incentives. This could cause problems at times, with soldiers sometimes going on strike or electing to fight for the opposing side for more money. This lack of loyalty in army forces was something prevalent in Renaissance fighting (Military History, 2022). As time went on and individual countries began to become more developed, the rise of strong centralized monarchies allowed for the creation of more professional, standing armies.

The battlefield also experienced many new transformations. With the development of cannons and other artillery, battles could be won or lost based on which side had more artillery weaponry, as opposed to the skill of the fighters. Superior weapons could destroy enemy lines, break fortifications, and cripple infrastructure (Military History, 2022). Additionally, the use of field fortifications became increasingly important. Armies learned to integrate defensive structures into their battle plans, protecting important artillery and personnel. Heavy cavalry experienced a surge in numbers as technical innovations made fighting on horseback more of an advantage. Overall, technological advancements and discoveries drove the advancement of nearly all aspects of the Renaissance period.

Post-Renaissance to Modern Age

As time progressed, military strategies continued to evolve, largely due to the unprecedented rate at which new military technology and weapons were created. Additionally, the way intelligence is gathered has widely changed from early scouts to technology that is able to record and scan people, buildings, and entire regions. The collection of intelligence has allowed military leaders to assess threats, properly allocate resources, and improve tactical effectiveness, transforming modern warfare (Total Military Insight, 2024). The use of satellites, drones, and more has allowed for the stealthy gathering of information so as not to alert potential enemies. These advancements allow for real-time data analysis so that leaders are able to make decisions that lead to the highest odds of victory.

Additional factors, including geography and alliances, have shaped changes in military strategies. As countries have been built up with improved infrastructure, geography has changed with new towns, cities, and more being built up all around the globe in areas that may have previously been barren or covered in trees. These changes have altered how wars are fought. In earlier periods, tree cover could be used for guerrilla warfare; however, if all of the trees in an area are cut down and a town or city is built, then fighting would have to take place in and around the built environment. The ever-changing nature of alliances is also a major factor that has changed throughout time. With new countries being established that did not exist during earlier times, the nature of alliances has widely changed. These alliances are relied upon during times of war to provide military support. Additionally, they are important for day-to-day trading, communication, and more that allow individual countries to obtain all necessary items, including food, technology, natural resources, etc., that are needed to survive and thrive.

The development of more specialized firearms, including improved rifles, handguns, snipers, shotguns, and others, has transformed how wars and battles are fought. Soldiers no longer carry swords, shields, axes, and spears, having increased maneuverability and lethality with their high-powered weaponry. Additionally, soldiers no longer march long distances to battle or ride horses to outflank opponents, and instead travel by military buses and sit inside tanks. The advancement of bombing has shifted early cannon use into large bombs dropped from planes from above. This allows for much more flexibility in aiming for a target as a plane can fly above virtually anything dropping bombs below it, whereas a cannon has to be moved and specially aimed at an intended target. The development of atomic bombs and more nuclear weaponry of today has even further changed how wars are discussed and fought. The threat of dropping a nuclear bomb can now be enough to stop a war before it even starts. The act of killing in war is now much less personal in many cases than it once was. In the past, soldiers had to physically kill one another, through stabbing with a spear or axe, or cutting with a sword. Today, pilots are able to drop bombs at the click of a button without having to physically confront an opposing force.

The rise of cell phones, the internet, and social media has also radically changed how communication, and in turn, wars are started and how they progress. Cyber warfare has created an entirely new battlefield, where digital systems can be hacked by individuals all across the globe. Cyberattacks are able to target financial systems, power grids, and communication networks, causing widespread panic, all without firing a single shot (McCarthy, 2024). The rise of artificial intelligence has also changed how information is gathered and processed. With AI being able to analyze large amounts of data quickly, patterns and insights may be provided that can influence the outcome of a battle or war. The use of artificial intelligence can also help on the battlefield, where targeting software may help pilots hit specific targets. These innovations are reshaping the battlefield, enhancing the precision and efficiency with which military weapons and personnel are able to operate. As we move into the future, more advancements and innovations are sure to come, and with that, new changes to the way military strategies are developed and how wars are fought are sure to follow.

Conclusion

Both military strategies and warfare have changed drastically over time, reflecting advancements in technology and shifts in political, economic, and social structures. From early open field, direct fighting with swords, shields, and spears, to the fighting of today with bombs, planes, machine guns, tanks, and more, the nature in which soldiers operate is very different. This reflects the broader changes throughout society, where infrastructure, economic policies, alliances, political systems, and more have grown and advanced. As technology continues to evolve, future military strategies are likely to be centered around artificial intelligence and cyber warfare. This will require more advanced and secure networks, with cybersecurity a matter of growing importance. As the world is sure to face future conflicts, leaders of the world will be able to draw on history and make decisions that both minimize destruction and promote global peace and security.

Sources

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