Changes in Medicine over Time: Through the Ages Project Part 4 of 10

By Jacob Lindbert

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Introduction

This paper will aim to outline some of the key changes and innovations in medicine through time. It will dive through major periods and empires within history, ending with the modern age of medicine. The paper will include beliefs surrounding medicine at the time, techniques used, and discuss ancient tools and procedures. The following periods will be evaluated: Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, Ancient China, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 18^th - 19^th century, and lastly modern-day 20^th - 21^st century medicine. 

Mesopotamia (3000 BCE – 500 BCE)

In ancient Mesopotamia, medicine was directly intertwined with religion, with the gods overseeing every aspect of daily living. Gula, the Sumerian goddess of healing, guided doctors and dentists in the treatment of health problems, which were typically attributed to supernatural causes (Mark, 2023). Doctors of ancient Mesopotamia were believed to work through the deities to protect the health of others, utilizing herbs, rituals, omens, etc., to perform their treatments. Generally, the path to becoming a doctor was long, taking 10-12 years, and requiring one to become a scribe, learn cuneiform script, and master the curriculum (Mark, 2023). There were two different types of doctors, an asu and an asipu. An asu was a medical doctor treating illness or injury empirically, while an asipu was a healer who relied on magic (Mark, 2023). With the reliance on religion, a doctor could do everything right but still have their patient die. This was often attributed to a god being angry with that individual, where even if one god is pleased, an angry god could yield poor health outcomes. Another interesting factor was that service fees were based on a sliding scale of one’s social status. A doctor treating a prince or wealthy person may be paid in gold, whereas pay from a poor individual may include a clay cup or food. Regardless, all of the evidence states that prescriptions and treatments were given equitably, disregarding social status.

Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE – 500 BCE)

Ancient Egyptians made great advancements in the field of medicine, understanding that diseases could be treated and the importance of cleanliness when treating patients. Injuries were easy to understand in ancient Egypt; disease was a bit more difficult. When someone was injured, there was a plain cause and an effect which could then be treated; when a person was sick, however, the cause was less clear and so the diagnosis was more problematic (Mark, 2017). Although there was a strong understanding of the basis of medicine, it was still believed that the root cause of sickness was the consequence of sin and demonic attack. To treat patients, Egyptian doctors used a variety of methods. Doctors used incantations, amulets, offerings, aromas, and more to either drive away the ghost or demon, placate the god or gods who had sent the illness, or invoke protection from a higher power (Mark, 2017). Doctors were believed to be pure in spirit and body, protected by greater powers and were classified as either swnw, general practitioners, or sau, whose specialty was in the use of magic (Mark, 2017). Doctors were also comfortable performing surgeries and more advanced treatments, and based on evidence obtained from mummies, show a high degree of success. The Egyptians used tools including a metal scalpel, dental pliers, a bone saw, probes, the catheter, clamps for stopping blood flow, specula, forceps, lancets for opening veins, sponges, scissors, phials, bandages of linen, and scales for weighing the proper amount of raw materials to mix for medicines (Mark, 2017). Lastly, the Ancient Egyptians wrote large amounts of information about early treatment of medical conditions, showing an advanced understanding of the conditions for the time. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) treats cancer (stating there is no treatment), heart disease, diabetes, birth control, and depression, while the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE) is the oldest work on surgical techniques (Mark, 2017). These writings helped mold the future of medical understanding, setting the basis for future Greek and Roman advancements.

Ancient India (1500 BCE – 500 CE)

In Ancient India, the primary methodology of medical care was a form of healing called Ayurveda, meaning knowledge of life. There are two treatments in Ayurveda: purification therapy (Shodhana) and alleviating/palliative therapy (Shamana Chikitsa). Shodhana treatment attacks dangerous doshas, which cause life-threatening illnesses, while Shamana therapy uses Ayurvedic medicines (Kalla, 2021). During the sixth century BC, a sage known as Sushruta—the “father of surgery”—documented more than 1,100 diseases, catalogued the use of medical herbs, and wrote directives for performing many surgical procedures, including rhinoplasty and skin grafts (Kalla, 2021). Early practitioners of Ayurveda were sages who were connected with faith and considered health an important part of basic human life. These sages would advise on nutrition and use herbs as part of their treatment. Ancient India utilized and built upon Ancient Egypt’s medical findings, utilizing their faith-based approach to healing.

Ancient China (1500 BCE – 220 CE)

In Ancient China, the traditional model of medical care was the cosmic theory of yin-yang. The male yang principle is active and light, while the female yin principle is passive and dark. A strong emphasis was placed on the human body, with it being made of five elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Health, character, and the success of all political and private ventures were determined by the yin or the yang, and ancient Chinese medicine aimed to control their proportions in the body (Fercility, 2019). Popular medical treatments and procedures conducted by healers and doctors included acupuncture, moxibustion, and herbal remedies. One of the most notable medical texts from this period is called The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon, which presented views on the human body and how it connected to the yin-yang, five elements, and Qi. Ancient China was composed of several dynasties, each with its own specific viewpoints on medicine, politics, religion, etc. The Shang people were religious and believed illness resulted from upsetting an ancestor, being cursed, or an evil demon entering the body (Mortlock, 2020). They relied on shamans to conduct medical care, utilizing rituals to talk to ancestors to find answers as to the cause of the illness or pain. Another notable text was The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, which described bodily anatomy, the blood and circulation, physiology, pathology, diagnosis and treatment, acupuncture, and more (Mortlock, 2020).

Ancient Greece (800 BCE – 150 BCE)

In Ancient Greece, illness was typically viewed as divine punishment, while healing was a gift bestowed by the gods. By the 5th century BCE, there were attempts to identify the material causes for illnesses rather than spiritual ones, leading to a move away from superstition towards scientific enquiry (Cartwright, 2018). With the shift to scientific understanding of medicine, anatomy and physiology were widely studied, mostly as a side effect of studying wounded soldiers from ongoing battles and wars during the time. None of these developments were more important than the creation and development of the Hippocratic Oath, which is still recited by all doctors today. While the words of the oath have changed over time, the general sentiment of doctors doing their best to promote patient health resounds. Like other ancient civilizations, much of medical care still utilized herbs to care for mental and physical health concerns.

Roman Empire (500 BCE – 450 CE)

The Roman Empire built upon the findings of the Greeks, placing a large emphasis on public health and infrastructure. They recognized the negative side effects of poor town/city hygiene, building aqueducts, sewers, and baths to promote cleaner cities and individuals. This reduced the amount of sewage in the streets and the sickness that prevailed. The Romans created many pills that were made of herbs and plants and used to treat colds and sicknesses. An example of this was a pill used to treat bad coughs made from saffron, myrrh, pepper, costmary, galbanum, cinnamon, castoreum, and poppy tears (Cartwright, 2013). Like other civilizations, surgery was largely avoided due to the risks involved and the amount of anatomy yet to be discovered and understood. However, many medical treatments were still employed. Sophisticated operations were carried out, including the removal of cataracts, draining of fluids, trephination, and even the reversal of circumcision. Wounds were stitched following surgery using flax, linen thread, or metal pins, and dressings of linen bandages or sponges were used (Cartwright, 2013).

Middle Ages (500 CE – 1500 CE)

Medicine during the Middle Ages relied on the findings of earlier civilizations and religion. There tended to be very few doctors during this time, with few universities to study at, leading to many suffering horrible fates. As a result of the lack of doctors, many visited apothecaries or other alternative healers who heavily used herbal remedies for treatment. Although much of the medical practice during the early part of the Middle Ages was primitive, Islamic scholars around 10 CE started to make some advancements. Notable scholar Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī built upon Galen and Hippocrates' work from Ancient Greece and Rome. He believed that medicine should focus on treating patients individually as opposed to placing them into set groupings. He also believed that diet and hygiene played a larger role in medicine than previously thought. He is also credited as being the first to distinguish the difference between smallpox and measles – two diseases that had the potential to spread quickly and kill (BBC, n.d.). While much was learned during this period of time, there were still many limitations in knowledge, as highlighted by epidemics like the Bubonic Plague. Even though there were many difficulties during this time, the shift to individual, patient-centered medicine was further highlighted as the most effective approach, setting the basis for how medical care is still provided today. 

Renaissance (1400 – 1700 CE)

The Renaissance was a period of great growth and innovation in culture, arts, medicine, and more. This was a period of curiosity, where many medical practitioners dove deeper into their studies. The creation of the printing press allowed for the mass production of medical information and texts. Additional new technologies emerged as well, with new techniques and tools to treat medical conditions. Even with all of the new developments, much of medical care was essentially the same. There were still large information gaps, with methods of diagnosis not greatly improving from previous civilizations. Physicians still were unsure how to cure infectious diseases, and when faced with the plague or syphilis, they regularly turned to superstitious rites and magic (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). However, advancements in disease management were developed, namely the creation of vaccines. Edward Anthony Jenner, an English doctor and scientist, is known as the pioneer of vaccinations and created the smallpox vaccine (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). Generally, the Renaissance period was a time of innovation and curiosity, with many scholars and medical professionals devoting time and resources to learning more about the body and how each of its parts works. The findings of individuals like Leonardo Da Vinci and others helped launch modern-day medicine.

18^th – 19^th Century

The 18th to 19th centuries were a time of great growth and knowledge. This was the marked start of specific medical fields and doctors having a specialty that they spent their life learning about. Some notable developments were the beginnings of the science of modern pathology, the invention of the stethoscope, the invention of germ theory, and the development of a robust understanding of human anatomy. By the 19th century, the structure of the human body was almost fully known, due to new methods of microscopy and injections. Even the body’s microscopic structure was understood (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). One of the most spectacular discoveries was the identification that small living organisms cause specific diseases (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Famous medical personnel and scientists include Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister. Pasteur is credited with establishing the science of bacteriology, proving that the fermentation of wine was due to living microorganisms. Joseph Lister introduced the antiseptic principle into surgery, promoting improved medical hygiene and surgical outcomes. Lastly, general anesthesia was developed, which freed patients from pain due to surgery and allowed surgeons to perform more extensive operations. Overall, this period of time was crucial, with many advancements in both techniques, tools, knowledge, and more.

20^th – 21^st Century

The 20th to 21st century experienced another explosion of medical innovations. Antibiotics revolutionized infection treatment, technologies like X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs transformed diagnostics, vaccines helped eradicate diseases, and modern hospitals and specialized fields drastically improved patient care. The greater understanding and mapping of the genome has allowed for an even more robust understanding. Electron microscopy allowed researchers to look deeper into the structures of the cell, revealing clues to their functions (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Organ transplants, increased numbers of medications, and improved knowledge have further revolutionized medicine. Developments in patient care have promoted better health outcomes, with safer and more sanitary operating rooms. This section of the research cannot possibly highlight all of the major discoveries and advancements of the 20^th to 21^st century, as more is developed and discovered every day. In all, this period has led to much improved health outcomes, with fewer deaths due to surgery, fewer infections, and a more robust understanding of the body and how to treat problems that arise.

Conclusion

The field of medicine has drastically changed over time. Early emphasis on religion influencing health outcomes placed an increased importance on spiritual leaders within society. As more knowledge was discovered and advanced medications and techniques developed, medicine continued to change. New vaccines and pills prevented deaths and yielded longer life spans with improved health outcomes. New technologies have allowed for more advanced procedures and life-saving measures. As a whole, the advancement of medical knowledge and practice has transformed how people live, reducing young deaths and encouraging future medical discoveries.

Sources

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