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By Chaeeun Lee When we think about ancient studies, it can sometimes feel distant from our everyday lives. Ruins, old languages, and long-gone civilizations might seem disconnected from the modern world. But the more we learn about the past, the more we realize that the ancient world is not as far away as it seems. It continues to shape the systems, ideas, and even the words we use today. Writing was one of the most important developments in human history because it allowed people to preserve memory beyond a single lifetime. As Barry B. Powell explains, writing technology changed civilization by making knowledge transferable across generations (Powell, 2012). Without early systems of writing, there would be no recorded laws, literature, or philosophy to build upon. Ancient texts are not just artifacts; they are conversations that continue into the present. A clay tablet inscribed with ancient cuneiform writing from Mesopotamia. Many parts of modern society have roots in antiquity. Roman law influenced later legal systems, and Greek philosophy still appears in discussions about ethics and politics. Mary Beard argues that understanding Rome helps us better understand the structures of power and citizenship that still affect us today (Beard, 2015). This shows that ancient studies are not about escaping into the past; it is about understanding the foundations of the present. Jan Assmann’s idea of “cultural memory” also helps explain why this field matters. He suggests that societies maintain their identity by remembering and reinterpreting their past (Assmann, 2011). Ancient monuments, texts, and traditions give communities a sense of continuity. Studying them allows us not only to appreciate earlier civilizations but also to question them critically. In a time when information moves quickly and attention spans are short, ancient studies teach patience. It requires careful reading, context, and reflection. Yuval Noah Harari writes that looking at the long span of human history helps us better understand current challenges (Harari, 2015). Ancient studies stretch that timeline even further, reminding us that questions about justice, power, and meaning have existed for thousands of years. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, an ancient Roman building in present-day Turkey. This is also why organizations like SASA are important today. SASA works to support students, independent scholars, and public engagement in ancient studies, ensuring that the field remains accessible beyond traditional academic institutions. By encouraging research, conversation, and digital outreach, initiatives like SASA help keep ancient studies active and relevant in contemporary society. Supporting ancient studies is not simply about preserving the past. It is about protecting perspective. By continuing to study and share ancient knowledge, we keep a long human conversation alive; One that connects who we were to who we are becoming. References: Assmann, Jan. Cultural Memory and Early Civilization: Writing, Remembrance, and Political Imagination. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Beard, Mary. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. Liveright Publishing, 2015. Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Harper, 2015. Powell, Barry B. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Written by: Emma Aurea Galiano Museo Civico Giovanni Marongiu Cabras On the western coast of the Italian island of Sardinia, near the small town of Cabras, an extraordinary archaeological discovery was made: the Giants of Mont’e Prama. These monumental limestone statues, located off the island's coast, are the earliest known large-scale stone sculptures in the western Mediterranean, dating back to approximately 900–750 BCE. Discovered by a local farmer, the statues have undergone destruction to modern restoration. They now serve as powerful yet often overlooked symbols of Sardinia's ancient history. The story of the giants unfolds as follows. In 1974, two farmers were plowing a field at Mont’e Prama when one of them struck a large carved limestone head just beneath the surface. What initially seemed to be an unusual stone quickly revealed itself to be part of a massive statue. Archaeologists were called to the site, and soon, excavations uncovered thousands of fragments scattered across a necropolis. Over several excavation campaigns in the late 1970s and again in the 2000s, archaeologists recovered more than 5,000 limestone fragments. These fragments belonged to towering human figures, some standing over two meters (about 6.5 feet) tall. Historians and scholars have been puzzled by the fact that these statues were deliberately smashed in antiquity and buried among tombs marked by stone slabs. This raises the question: why? While the reasons for this destruction are still debated, many scholars suspect it may have been related to political or cultural upheaval during a period of change in the Mediterranean. Courtesy Mont’e Prama Foundation Archives, photo by Nicola Castangia The statues were created by the Nuragic civilization, a distinctive culture from the Bronze and early Iron Age that originated on the island of Sardinia. The Nuragic people were known for their cautious nature and curiosity, but they are most famous for their mysterious stone towers, known as nuraghi, which can still be found across the island in the thousands. The Giants of Mont’e Prama represent the pinnacle of this civilization. Unlike the smaller bronze figurines previously associated with Nuragic culture, these statues are monumental in scale and striking in style. Their large, circular eyes, geometric facial features, and stylized armor give them a remarkable and almost otherworldly presence. The giants have been categorized into three distinct groups: Boxers, Warriors, and Archers. The Boxers represent the largest number of assembled sculptures, though their interpretation can be quite confusing. Many Boxers display signs of injury, indicated by traces of red pigment on their legs and chests. These figures may represent either lightly armed fighters trained for hand-to-hand combat or athlete-warriors engaged in ritualized, violent contests held in honor of a god or the deceased. In contrast, the Archers and Warriors are depicted wearing attire that reflects their weaponry. For instance, the Archer holds a bow and arrow, while the Warrior wears a breastplate and a helmet adorned with a horn. Archaeologists have discovered not only human figures but also stone models of nuraghi towers and sacred stones known as baetyls, which likely held religious or symbolic significance. Together, these findings suggest that the site served as both a cemetery and a ceremonial monument dedicated to elite warriors or prominent members of society. One of the greatest mysteries surrounding these giants is the violent destruction they underwent. When archaeologists unearthed the statues, they found them shattered into countless pieces. This breakage appears to be intentional, suggesting that the sculptures were deliberately dismantled in antiquity. Some scholars suggest that the destruction of certain statues in Sardinia may have occurred due to the arrival of Phoenician or later Carthaginian influences. Others believe it may have resulted from internal social or political changes within Nuragic society. Regardless of the cause, the statues were buried and forgotten for nearly three millennia. For decades after their discovery, the fragments were stored while scholars studied them. Starting in the early 2000s, a significant restoration effort was launched to meticulously clean, catalog, and reassemble the pieces. Through careful conservation work, more than forty statues and architectural elements have been reconstructed. Today, many of the restored Giants can be viewed at the National Archaeological Museum in Cagliari and at the Giovanni Marongiu Civic Museum in Cabras, near the original excavation site. Ongoing excavations continue to uncover new fragments and enhance our understanding of this complex. In recent years, the Giants have gained international recognition, with one of the largest statues even being loaned to The Metropolitan Museum of Art (THE MET) in New York, thereby introducing global audiences to Sardinia’s ancient heritage. The Giants of Mont’e Prama are truly remarkable in the context of the ancient Mediterranean. They are recognized as the earliest known monumental sculptures of their kind in the region and represent a significant artistic achievement of the Nuragic civilization, a culture known for its limited written records. Although many questions remain about their specific purpose, the circumstances surrounding their destruction, and the society that created them, the Giants stand as silent sentinels of Sardinia’s history. Emerging once again from the earth's fragments, these ancient stone figures remind us of the vast amount of human history yet to be uncovered and how profoundly it can shift our understanding of the ancient world.

Written and Researched by Jacob Lindbert Research Assisted by Om Jade Introduction Education is widely regarded as one of the most powerful tools for social and economic transformation. It empowers individuals, strengthens communities, and drives sustainable development. However, despite global commitments to addressing literacy rates and education gaps, there remain disparities among countries and continents. Much of this global challenge can be defined under the term learning poverty. The World Bank defines learning poverty as the percentage of children who by the age of 10 years old are unable to read and understand simple text (The World Bank, 2022). Reading serves as the foundation upon which children can learn, where the inability to do so negatively shapes their future educational, social, and economic opportunities.  The importance of addressing learning poverty extends beyond individual achievement. Countries with high learning poverty rates face long-term consequences, including slower economic growth, weakened human capital development, and perpetuation of social inequalities. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the crisis by disrupting schooling globally, leading to significant setbacks in learning outcomes, especially in low- and middle-income nations. The World Bank reports around 260 million children are not present in any school system (The World Bank, 2022). This learning crisis leads to lifelong challenges. When children do not learn to read and write, they often fail to thrive in further schooling as well as post-educational settings. These individuals often fail to acquire many of the skills needed to launch their careers and become thriving members of society.  Another measure this paper will evaluate is learning deprivation amongst countries. The World Bank defines learning deprivation as the inability of children to acquire foundational skills, particularly reading proficiency, by the end of primary school (The World Bank, 2022). For most students, primary school ends around the age of 11 to 12, marking a critical moment in their future academic and professional foundation. Learning deprivation differs from learning poverty because it focuses on the actual performance of children in school, while learning poverty encompasses a broader range of factors that contribute to the overall quality of education and learning outcomes. The third measure that will be evaluated within this paper is schooling deprivation. The World Bank defines this as the share of primary-aged children who are not in school (The World Bank, 2022). This does not mean that all students who are not in school are not receiving any education, nor do they all fall under the categories of learning poverty or learning deprivation. However, it does lay out a picture that represents global challenges to education. Together, these three measures reflect the challenges faced by children in acquiring reading skills, foundational skills, and other knowledge.  While prior studies often focus on individual countries or regions, this research takes a comparative, global perspective by analyzing learning poverty, learning deprivation, and schooling deprivation across six continents: North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia & Oceania. By examining variations in these measures, this study aims to identify regional disparities and uncover patterns that may inform targeted policy interventions. The significance of this research lies not only in describing the current states of learning poverty, learning deprivation, and schooling deprivation, but also in providing evidence-based insights that may contribute to international dialogue on education reform. As education systems worldwide struggle to recover from the pandemic and adapt to technological and demographic shifts, understanding the scope and distribution of learning poverty is more critical than ever. Methodology This research employs a quantitative, comparative approach to examine learning poverty, learning deprivation, and schooling deprivation rates across six continents. The methodology is built around three primary components: data collection, data preparation, and analytical techniques. Together, these steps ensure a consistent and reliable assessment of global learning poverty patterns. The principal source of data for this study is the World Bank Database, which provides country-level statistics on the percentage of children aged ten who are unable to read and comprehend simple text. Additional reports from UNESCO and UNICEF were consulted to cross-verify regional disparities and strengthen the reliability of the findings. The dataset covers countries across North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia & Oceania. However, not all nations had published or up-to-date learning poverty values; such countries were excluded from the quantitative analyses.  While data used in this paper is consistent with respect to all coming from the World Bank, there are some limitations. Data varies significantly, with some countries reporting 2019 figures while others have data only from 2001. This gap in data can lead to inaccuracies, not accounting for any progress countries may have made on a year-to-year basis. Additionally, with the most recent data being from 2019, the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on global learning patterns is not accounted for. Therefore, while the data obtained is useful for evaluating trends, it is important to note the limitations present.  Regional Analysis Africa The continent of Africa has some of the highest rates of learning poverty, learning deprivation, and school deprivation in the world. Many countries have rates of over 90 percent learning poverty and learning deprivation, with many having higher than 20 percent schooling deprivation rates. This means that in many of these countries, 90 percent or more of children are unable to read or understand simple text by the age of 10. This widespread crisis reflects deep-rooted structural challenges, including pervasive poverty, prolonged armed conflict, fragile governance systems, inadequate school infrastructure, and limited investment in teacher training and learning materials. Countries including Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Zambia have rates over 90 percent for both learning poverty and learning deprivation. Even the country with the lowest rate of learning poverty, Gabon, still presents with 30.7 percent in learning poverty. This is a drastic number, where large portions of the African population experience barriers to learning.  Given that schooling deprivation rates reach 20 percent in many countries, it is not surprising that learning poverty and learning deprivation are such a large issue. However, it is important to note the wide difference between those attending school and those still unable to read by the age of 10. This highlights an even more fundamental problem within education systems, including inadequate teacher training and insufficient learning materials. Following independence, African classrooms also had more foreign than native teachers, which led to the curriculum reflecting teachers’ context rather than students’ context; through the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, students can be better prepared to thrive in their environment because of reintegrated local expertise and the preservation of traditional knowledge (Zickafoose et al., 2024). Early literacy is a cornerstone of cognitive development, supporting language acquisition, memory, and higher-order thinking skills. Children who fail to develop basic reading skills by age ten often struggle to engage with more complex subjects in later grades, leading to learning deficits that are difficult to reverse. These academic hurdles often turn into social and emotional problems, including disengagement from work and future learning, low self-esteem, and more. Over time, these outcomes heighten children’s vulnerability to child labor and other forms of social and economic exploitation. At the societal level, widespread learning poverty undermines long-term economic growth and social development. A workforce lacking basic literacy skills is less productive, earns lower wages, and contributes less to national economic output, reinforcing cycles of poverty and inequality. With learning poverty disproportionately impacting children from lower income families and areas, this only widens the generational gap and restricts social mobility. Collectively, these findings indicate that Africa’s education crisis is no longer primarily a matter of school access but one of educational quality, with far-reaching implications for both individual life outcomes and broader societal stability. Asia Asia demonstrates an extraordinary degree of diversity in learning poverty outcomes, encompassing some of the world’s strongest education systems as well as nations facing severe foundational learning crises. The continent’s vast population, economic heterogeneity, and varied political environments make it a critical determinant of global learning poverty trends. In regions with advanced economies, widespread access to high-quality schooling and well-developed literacy programs have resulted in exceptionally low learning poverty rates. In contrast, countries affected by conflict, poverty, or limited educational infrastructure experience alarmingly high levels of learning poverty, often exceeding 90 percent. Given Asia’s demographic weight and developmental significance, understanding its educational disparities is essential for shaping global policy responses and driving progress toward the reduction of learning poverty worldwide. On one end of the spectrum, countries like Japan, South Korea, and Singapore have learning poverty rates of under 4 percent with learning deprivation rates of under 3 percent. This highlights how strong policy prioritization, robust curriculum design, and high-quality teaching can produce measurable results and long-term success. There is a strong correlation between education, economic empowerment, and low unemployment. Education helps economies grow and infrastructures develop. In South Korea, it was government policy that made education the biggest portion of the budget, next to defense (Abuasi, 2020). This is largely similar in both Japan and Singapore, with government initiatives and support at the core of education reforms. At the other extreme, several Asian countries face severe learning crises. Laos, Yemen, Afghanistan, Myanmar, and the Philippines rank among the highest globally, reflecting the compounded effects of conflict, limited infrastructure, poverty, and systemic underinvestment in foundational learning. In many countries, learning deprivation rates closely track learning poverty rates, suggesting that poor learning outcomes stem primarily from low instructional quality rather than lack of school participation. This pattern is especially pronounced in countries such as Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Philippines, where learning deprivation differs from learning poverty by only a few percentage points. These findings point to systemic challenges including insufficient teacher training, outdated curricula, language barriers, and limited instructional resources. Schooling deprivation across Asia shows wide variation and highlights access and quality challenges in education. Several countries—including China, Vietnam, Singapore, Iran, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia—report minimal schooling deprivation, reflecting near-universal enrollment. However, many of these same countries still experience moderate learning poverty, reinforcing the conclusion that access alone is insufficient to ensure learning. In contrast, countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Jordan, and Yemen face substantial schooling deprivation alongside high learning deprivation, meaning that large numbers of children are both excluded from schooling and unlikely to learn when enrolled. Conflict, displacement, gender barriers, and poverty play central roles in limiting consistent school participation in these contexts. Asia presents one of the widest gaps between educational success and crisis, with some nations achieving positive learning outcomes while others experience near-total learning poverty. This disparity is driven by a combination of structural, economic, and political factors. Wealthier countries invest heavily in teacher training, curriculum development, and literacy-focused reforms, allowing nations such as Japan and Singapore to attain near-universal literacy by age ten. In contrast, severe economic inequality across the region leaves many low-income countries struggling to provide even basic educational resources. Ongoing conflicts and political instability in countries such as Afghanistan, Yemen, and Myanmar further disrupt schooling and undermine children’s ability to learn. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic had one of its most profound impacts in South and Southeast Asia, where extended school closures and limited access to remote learning disproportionately affected disadvantaged populations. Taken together, the Asian experience underscores that while school access has expanded significantly in many countries, ensuring high-quality learning—particularly in the early grades—remains essential for sustainable development and long-term human capital formation. Australia and Oceania This area of the world had very little available data, with both Australia and New Zealand showing relatively low rates of learning poverty, learning deprivation, and schooling deprivation. These countries have strong public education systems, comprehensive literacy programs, and consistent government investment in early childhood learning. These nations demonstrate that high-quality schooling, access to trained teachers, and structured curricular frameworks can significantly reduce learning poverty and promote equitable learning outcomes. The relatively small gap between learning poverty and learning deprivation in both cases indicates that most learning challenges likely arise within the school system rather than from lack of access, though the scale of the problem remains limited compared to other regions. Schooling deprivation in Australia and New Zealand is minimal, with rates of 3.2 percent and 1.5 percent, respectively, reflecting near-universal access to education. These low levels of schooling deprivation further reinforce the strength of education infrastructure, social safety nets, and compulsory schooling policies across the region. However, the presence of any schooling deprivation suggests that specific subpopulations—such as Indigenous communities, children in remote areas, or those from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds—may still face barriers to consistent school participation and high-quality instruction. Although overall learning poverty is low, its implications for childhood development and society remain important. At the societal level, even modest levels of learning poverty can contribute to persistent inequality if concentrated among marginalized groups. Australia has and continues to work at expanding access to education resources, utilizing policy exchange and partnership opportunities to reduce disadvantages, promote learning for the disabled, and treat education as a fundamental human right (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2022). Consequently, the experience of Australia and New Zealand underscores that maintaining low learning poverty requires continued investment in inclusive education policies, early interventions, and targeted support for vulnerable populations to ensure that strong average outcomes translate into equitable learning opportunities for all children.  Europe Europe stands out globally as the region with the lowest learning poverty rates, a reflection of its well-developed educational systems, substantial public investment in human capital, and long-standing policy frameworks that emphasize literacy and foundational learning. Many European nations have established universal access to early childhood education, ensure strong teacher training systems, and implement consistent national assessments, all of which contribute to exceptional literacy outcomes. As a result, the region serves as a global model for effective education governance and demonstrates the impact of sustained commitment to educational equity and quality. However, not all countries in Europe have achieved such success, with notable exceptions being Malta, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Slovakia, and Ukraine all having learning poverty rates over 20 percent. These higher rates often reflect the consequences of historical conflict, limited funding, economic instability, or systemic inequalities that hinder educational quality. Although learning poverty and learning deprivation rates are expected to be close to one another due to the similar nature of the measurement, there are a few countries that break the mold. A few of those countries include Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. Austria has a learning poverty rate of 13.3 percent yet a learning deprivation rate of 2.4 percent, the Czech Republic rates of 13.8 and 3 percent for learning poverty and learning deprivation respectively, and Slovakia rates of 23.2 and 6.6 percent for learning poverty and learning deprivation respectively. This highlights the gap of children not being appropriately educated within the school system with many gaining the skills needed to read by the end of primary school as indicated by learning deprivation but still unable to read simple text as indicated by learning poverty.  Schooling deprivation across Europe is generally minimal, reflecting near-universal access to education. Most countries report schooling deprivation rates below 5 percent, underscoring the success of education policies and strong social infrastructure. However, a subset of countries—including Slovakia, Ukraine, Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, and the Czech Republic—exhibit higher schooling deprivation, often exceeding 10 percent. In these contexts, learning poverty reflects a combination of access barriers and learning quality challenges, with factors such as socioeconomic inequality, migration, rural isolation, and political instability contributing to uneven educational participation. The implications of learning poverty and deprivation for childhood development in Europe, while less severe in scale than in other regions, remain significant. Children who fail to acquire foundational literacy skills early are more likely to struggle academically, experience disengagement from school, and face limited educational and labor market opportunities later in life. These risks are often concentrated among marginalized populations, including children from low-income households, migrant communities, and ethnic minorities, reinforcing patterns of social exclusion and inequality. Europe demonstrates that sustained investment in education, strong governance structures, and comprehensive social equity policies can significantly reduce learning poverty across diverse populations. The region’s success is largely attributed to universal access to early childhood education, well-trained and adequately compensated teachers, and rigorous monitoring mechanisms that ensure continuous evaluation of student performance and system effectiveness. International organizations play a crucial role in supporting foundational literacy in Europe. They provide technical expertise, evidence-based recommendations, and policy guidance to help shape global responses to health challenges and strengthen international cooperation in addressing literacy and other public health issues (United Nations, 2025). North America Across North America, learning poverty levels reveal a sharp divide between high-income countries and much of Central America and the Caribbean, highlighting significant inequalities in educational quality and learning outcomes across the region. Many countries experience very high rates of learning poverty and learning deprivation ranging from 70 to 80 percent. Countries like Canada and the United States serve as the other end of the spectrum with learning poverty and deprivation rates of less than 5 percent. These nations benefit from high teacher qualifications, substantial per-student investment, and the availability of learning resources that support literacy development both inside and outside the classroom. Learning deprivation emerges as the dominant contributor to learning poverty across most of the region. In many countries, learning deprivation rates closely mirror learning poverty rates, suggesting that children are often enrolled in school but are not achieving minimum learning outcomes. This pattern is particularly evident in countries such as Nicaragua, Belize, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic, where the difference between learning poverty and learning deprivation is minimal. Even in middle-income countries such as Mexico and Costa Rica, learning deprivation remains substantial, indicating persistent challenges related to instructional quality, teacher preparation, curriculum alignment, and access to learning materials. These findings underscore that expanding school access alone is insufficient to ensure foundational learning. Schooling deprivation in North America is generally low but varies notably across countries. Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Costa Rica report minimal schooling deprivation, reflecting widespread access to formal education. However, several countries in Central America, including El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Panama, experience elevated schooling deprivation rates, often exceeding 10 percent. In these contexts, learning poverty reflects a compounded challenge, as children face both barriers to consistent school attendance and limited learning gains when enrolled. Factors such as poverty, rural isolation, and exposure to violence contribute to irregular schooling and hinder educational continuity. Collectively, these patterns indicate that while North America includes some of the world’s strongest education systems, large segments of the region continue to face a foundational learning crisis that demands sustained investment in educational quality, equity, and early-grade learning interventions. South America South America’s educational landscape is marked by significant contrasts, shaped by economic disparities, political instability, and unequal access to learning resources. The region includes countries that have made measurable progress in expanding schooling, yet many continue to struggle with ensuring that children acquire foundational reading skills by age ten. Learning poverty in South America remains a critical concern, with substantial variation in outcomes across countries. While some nations demonstrate moderate literacy performance, others face chronic challenges that inhibit progress. As a whole, the region exhibits one of the highest overall learning poverty averages, highlighting the need for sustained policy attention and targeted interventions. Across South America, learning poverty remains a significant and widespread challenge, despite relatively high levels of school enrollment throughout the region. Chile reports the lowest learning poverty at 27.2 percent, followed by Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay, where rates remain above 40 percent. In contrast, several countries exhibit particularly severe learning poverty, including Paraguay (77.7 percent), Ecuador (65.9 percent), and Argentina (59.1 percent), indicating that a majority of children in these countries are not achieving foundational literacy during their early schooling years. In nearly all countries, learning deprivation closely mirrors learning poverty, with differences of only one to three percentage points. This pattern demonstrates that most children who experience learning poverty are enrolled in school but fail to acquire minimum learning outcomes. These findings point to systemic issues related to instructional quality, including gaps in teacher training, curriculum implementation challenges, unequal access to learning materials, and disruptions to instructional time. Even in countries with comparatively stronger education systems, such as Chile and Uruguay, learning deprivation remains substantial, suggesting that learning challenges are persistent and not limited to low-income contexts. Schooling deprivation across South America is generally low, reflecting widespread access to formal education and the success of compulsory schooling policies. Most countries report schooling deprivation rates below 3 percent, indicating that barriers to school enrollment are relatively limited. However, Paraguay stands out with a schooling deprivation rate of 12.2 percent, highlighting some of the added barriers they face. These deficiencies stem from factors such as insufficient teacher training, under-resourced schools, and large gaps in instructional quality between urban and rural areas. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive strategy centered on strengthening teacher development, increasing equitable funding, and expanding community-based literacy initiatives that support learning beyond formal schooling. Furthermore, regional cooperation—such as educational coordination within MERCOSUR—has the potential to create shared benchmarks, promote knowledge exchange, and help countries collectively address systemic weaknesses (Organization of American States, 2014). Ultimately, South America’s experience demonstrates that improving foundational skills demands not only on access to education but also sustained investment in the quality and equity of learning opportunities. To better understand effective approaches to reducing learning poverty, the following section examines specific country examples that illustrate both successful strategies and persistent challenges. Case Studies While this section will make general recommendations and evaluate what has worked in some countries, it is important to note the vast differences in political, economic, and social infrastructure in each and every country. This eliminates the idea that any one particular solution will work across the board. This is highlighted under the Africa analysis above from Zickafoose et al. stating it is important to incorporate local knowledge versus having blanket plans or proposals for education. The following section will look at several countries, evaluating what they are doing well and what they continue to emphasize moving into the future.  Broadly, tackling learning poverty demands comprehensive, sustained, and context-specific policy interventions. Governments must increase funding for early-grade education, ensuring that literacy development becomes a national priority. Investments should focus on improving school infrastructure, providing high-quality learning materials, and strengthening early childhood development programs, which form the foundation for later learning. Second, teacher training must be prioritized. Teachers are an influential factor in improving literacy outcomes, and ongoing professional development is essential for equipping them with effective instructional strategies. Third, technology should be leveraged as a powerful tool for expanding access to education. Digital learning solutions—whether through mobile devices, radio-based instruction, or community learning centers—can help reach remote or underserved populations, particularly in regions with limited school infrastructure.  The following paragraphs will discuss the countries of Singapore, Finland, Canada, and Argentina. This broad look across 4 continents will present a thorough look into what works well, irrespective of physical geography. All three of Singapore, Finland, and Canada have very low rates of learning poverty, learning deprivation, and schooling deprivation. They all have established educational plans with governmental systems in place that support them. Argentina is the exception with high rates of learning poverty and learning deprivation, yet a very low schooling deprivation rate. Therefore, we will evaluate each country individually and what policies and practices they have in place.  Singapore In Singapore, the education system is recognized for its strong academic results and structured approach to learning, but it also increasingly emphasizes holistic engagement and differentiated pathways that support diverse learners. Singapore’s Ministry of Education has incrementally shifted from a narrow focus based solely on academic achievement toward broader student development. The government centralizes policy control and infrastructures to create an efficient system, making high-quality public education available to all under the Compulsory Education Act of 2000, while simultaneously decentralizing the system to develop schools into learning organizations that are continuously improving with minimal governmental intervention (Kwek et al., 2023). These policy initiatives and long-term governmental support place education at the center of childhood development, emphasizing the importance of being able to read and engage in other subject learning.  When faced with challenges, the Singaporean government is prepared and equipped to quickly and efficiently respond. The Singapore education system was able to adapt to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic by switching to full home-based learning through the rapid deployment of technological resources to needy families allowing all access to virtual learning resources (Kwek et al., 2023). Having the support of the government with financial means and support to back it up can drastically improve the ability of all children in learning to read and write. When teachers are given the proper training and resources, they are able to effectively perform their jobs, providing academic support through tailored instruction, developed worksheets, and additional resources when needed. These elements contribute to high student engagement and strong international performance, and are part of a system that seeks to leave no learner behind while still maintaining high expectations for all. Finland At the heart of the Finnish system is a strong commitment to educational equity, student well-being, and teacher professionalism. The Finnish Basic Education Act guarantees free education for all pupils, including free school meals, which not only supports physical well-being but also helps ensure that socio-economic circumstances do not hinder a student’s ability to learn. Teachers in Finland are required to hold advanced qualifications (often a master’s degree) and are granted substantial autonomy in the classroom, allowing them to tailor instruction based on ongoing formative assessments rather than relying primarily on frequent high-stakes testing. At the national level, the government’s strategic plan outlines high-level educational goals over a 4-year timeline with the Finnish parliament passing educational legislation, while the Ministry of Education and Culture (OKM) administers policies across all sectors, from early childhood to adult learning (Al-Thani, 2024). National policies provide guiding principles and frameworks while allowing regional and local customization flexibility based on specific needs. Equality and equity are the guiding principles of Finland’s education system, which operates within national curriculum frameworks to promote fair and high-quality education for all students (Al-Thani, 2024).  Schools in Finland offer individualized education plans that allow students to progress at their own pace. This is intended to support both high achievers and students who may need extra help. The emphasis on professional teaching practice and individualized learning helps teachers identify and address learning gaps early, supporting students who might otherwise fall behind. The curriculum’s focus on holistic development—including critical thinking, creativity, and life skills—together with a low-pressure testing environment, fosters a culture where students are more engaged and less stressed, further reducing disparities in educational outcomes. Moreover, educational governance in Finland is collaborative and decentralized, involving stakeholders across national, regional, and local levels to ensure policies reflect diverse community needs, reinforcing the system’s equity focus. Canada Canada’s educational approach heavily prioritizes inclusivity and engagement, though its decentralized nature means implementation varies by province and territory. Canadian educational goals explicitly align with international frameworks like the Sustainable Development Goal 4, aiming to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all students throughout their lives. The Government of Canada works with provincial, territorial, and Indigenous partners in building a Canada-wide Early Learning and Child Care (ELCC) system, so all families have access to high-quality, affordable, flexible and inclusive early learning and childcare no matter where they live in Canada (Government of Canada, 2024). Canada's ambition under this goal is to ensure Canadians have access to inclusive and quality education throughout their lives. Many provinces have developed Inclusive Education Policies that define inclusion as an approach that promotes belonging, respects diversity, and accommodates individual learner needs within mainstream classrooms. Organizations like Inclusion Canada are working to fight for even more access to schooling, particularly for those disabled. Segregated classrooms, seclusion rooms, limited access to educational supports, inaccessible spaces, and low expectations are just some of the ways children with an intellectual disability are excluded and discriminated against in Canadian schools. Without access to quality inclusive education, people with an intellectual disability have limited employment and post-secondary opportunities and are more likely to live in poverty (Inclusion Canada, 2025). Across Canada, schools also increasingly implement Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and supportive services such as counseling, psychological support, and career guidance, ensuring that students with diverse learning needs have access to tailored support and opportunities to succeed.  Despite these strengths, all three countries, Singapore, Finland, and Canada, face ongoing challenges in fully eliminating learning poverty and inequities. In Canada, certain groups—such as Indigenous students and students with disabilities—remain underrepresented in equitable educational outcomes, and advocacy groups continue to push for improvements in access and culturally responsive education. Singapore’s high-performance culture can create pressure that may widen achievement gaps if not balanced with adequate support for struggling students. Finland, while equity-focused, must continually ensure that its relaxed testing environment and autonomy translate into consistent support for all learners in increasingly diverse classrooms. Nevertheless, all three countries experience high levels of student involvement with low learning poverty levels, highlighting the positive effect their efforts have made.  Argentina Argentina presents an interesting case study, with high learning poverty and learning deprivation rates of 59.1 and 58.9 percent respectively, yet a very low schooling deprivation rate of 0.5 percent. This highlights a fundamental issue within the schooling system in Argentina, where students are in schools yet not gaining the skills necessary to read and comprehend simple textual sentences. This can be explained by a range of different factors, including teaching challenges, curriculum challenges, and more.  A prominent challenge in Argentina includes poor learning environments with multi-grade teaching, where a teacher must teach children from multiple grades, ages, and abilities in the same classroom (The World Bank, 2024).This presents a set of challenges for teachers, having to allocate time and energy across a range of topics as opposed to focusing in on a set curriculum. These disparities translate into persistent gaps in basic literacy development, despite formal access to education. Over the last decade, Argentina has also been suffering from staglearning – no growth in learning, despite high levels of spending on education (Holland, 2016). With more money being spent on education in Argentina without similar positive trends on learning outcomes, an alarming picture is painted. This highlights that money alone is unable to solve problems surrounding education. Instead, consistent government support with an established plan in place is crucial.  The quality of instruction and curriculum implementation also plays a major role, where the lack of formative assessment practices and limited teacher professional development can constrain students’ ability to develop foundational reading skills. In such environments, time spent in school does not automatically produce learning gains, especially for children who start school with disadvantages or who encounter learning difficulties early on. Similarly, household and community factors, including poverty, limited access to early childhood education, and unequal access to supplementary learning resources like books and tutoring, can compound learning challenges and widen gaps in reading proficiency. Conclusion  Learning poverty remains a critical global challenge with far-reaching consequences for human capital development, economic growth, and long-term societal stability. The analysis conducted across six continents reveals significant disparities: while regions such as Europe have achieved substantial success in reducing learning poverty, Africa, several parts of Asia, and large portions of the Americas continue to face deep and persistent educational crises. These disparities reflect differences in national investments, policy priorities, and social conditions. The research emphasizes that addressing learning poverty is not solely an educational goal—it is a developmental imperative. Without the ability to read and understand basic text by age ten, children face lifelong disadvantages that limit their opportunities and perpetuate cycles of poverty. The global community must therefore view learning poverty as a shared responsibility, requiring coordinated efforts to ensure that every child, regardless of geography or economic status, has access to quality foundational education. Countries with low learning poverty consistently prioritize early-grade literacy, invest heavily in teacher training and professional autonomy, maintain coherent and well-aligned curricula, and embed equity into education governance. Case studies of Singapore, Finland, and Canada demonstrate that strong governmental commitment, inclusive education policies, and proactive responses to educational disruptions—such as those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic—are central to ensuring that children acquire foundational skills by age ten. In contrast, Argentina’s experience highlights a critical cautionary lesson: high levels of educational spending and near-universal enrollment do not automatically translate into learning gains. Persistent learning deprivation in Argentina reflects systemic challenges related to instructional quality, curriculum implementation, teacher support, and socioeconomic inequality, reinforcing the concept of “staglearning” and emphasizing the need for coherent, long-term educational strategies rather than isolated investments. Ultimately, this study highlights that reducing global learning poverty requires a fundamental shift from focusing primarily on schooling access toward prioritizing learning quality, equity, and early intervention. Policies must center on strengthening early literacy instruction, supporting teachers through sustained professional development, addressing contextual barriers such as poverty and language diversity, and using data-driven monitoring to guide reform. Learning poverty is not an inevitable condition but a solvable challenge when governments commit to evidence-based, context-sensitive solutions. As education systems worldwide continue to recover from pandemic-related disruptions and confront future demographic and technological changes, addressing learning poverty must remain a global priority. Ensuring that every child can read and understand simple text by the end of primary school is not only an educational imperative but a necessity for building more equitable, resilient, and prosperous societies. References Abuasi, N. (2020, October 4). How Education in South Korea Slashed Poverty . The Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/education-in-south-korea/ Al-Thani, G. (2024). Comparative Analysis of Stakeholder Integration in Education Policy Making: Case Studies of Singapore and Finland. Societies , 14 (7), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc14070104 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2022). Australia’s assistance for education . Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. https://www.dfat.gov.au/development/topics/development-issues/education-health/education Government of Canada. (2024). Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality education - Canada.ca . Canada.ca . https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/agenda-2030/quality-education.html?utm_ Holland, P. (2016). Why is Argentina suffering from StagLearning?  World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/education/why-argentina-suffering-staglearning?utm Inclusion Canada. (2025). Inclusive Education . Inclusion Canada. https://www.inclusioncanada.ca/our-work/inclusive-education?utm Kwek, D., Wong, H. M., & Ho, J. (2023, March 16). Singapore’s educational reforms toward holistic outcomes . Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/singapores-educational-reforms-toward-holistic-outcomes/?utm Organization of American States. (2014). Youth Contribute to Education and Development Policy in MERCOSUR . Oas.org . https://www.oas.org/en/sedi/nl/1114/4_en.asp The World Bank. (2022). The State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update  (pp. 66–71). The World Bank. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/e52f55322528903b27f1b7e61238e416-0200022022/original/Learning-poverty-report-2022-06-21-final-V7-0-conferenceEdition.pdf The World Bank. (2024, April 12). Tackling the Learning Crisis in Latin America and the Caribbean . World Bank; World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2024/03/22/tackling-the-learning-crisis-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean?utm_ United Nations. (2025). Maintain International Peace and Security . United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/our-work/maintain-international-peace-and-security Zickafoose, A., Ilesanmi, O., Diaz-Manrique, M., Adeyemi, A. E., Walumbe, B., Strong, R., Wingenbach, G., Rodriguez, M. T., & Dooley, K. (2024). Barriers and Challenges Affecting Quality Education (Sustainable Development Goal #4) in Sub-Saharan Africa by 2030. Sustainability , 16 (7), 2657. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072657 The PDF version of this paper can be found and downloaded below.

By Aihyat Almayahy When people think about ancient art, Ancient Greece is often the first civilization to be thought of. This is most likely due to the fact that it is a civilization that excelled in human art form and set the foundation for Western artistic tradition. But Greek sculpture did not appear out of nowhere; It developed gradually through centuries of cultural contact with earlier societies, particularly those in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. When we look closely at the features and techniques of these sculptures, it becomes clear that Greek artists had these influences. https://www.worldhistory.org/ Some of the earliest large-scale human figures come from Mesopotamia, including the statues from the Tell Asmar Hoard (2900-2550 BCE). At first glance, these figures do not look natural at all. Their bodies are built from simple geometric shapes like cylinders and cones, their hands are clasped together, and their eyes are inlaid and large. These sculptures focused more on spiritual presence than naturalism. Stillness and symmetry created a sense of order that reflected the relationship between humans and the divine. In Egyptian sculpture, there was a greater emphasis on permanence. The seated ruler in Khafre Enthroned (2550-2480 BCE) is carved from diorite, an extremely hard stone native to Egypt chosen specifically for its durability. Everything about the figure portrays stability; they are standing up straight with balanced limbs. Rather than capturing a scene like many Greek sculptures we are familiar with, it presents the pharaoh as eternal and unchanging. http://arthistoryresources.net/menkaure/menkaure-statue.html A similar approach can be seen in Menkaure and Khamerernebty II (2532-2500 BCE). Both figures stride forward with one leg extended, yet their upper bodies remain stiff and unmoving. Movement is suggested, but it is restrained; it's more so symbolic. Egyptian sculptors were focused on portraying authority. This one foot forward stance was also used to balance such sculptures.  https://smarthistory.org/marble-statue-of-a-kouros-new-york-kouros/ When early Greek artists began carving large stone statues, many aspects of their sculptures feel familiar. The New York Kouros (600-580 BCE)  shares the same forward step, and symmetrical stance seen in Egyptian works. A closer observation will allow one to notice the large eyes and stylized hair common in Mesopotamian and Persian sculptures, and this is no coincidence. This stylization reflects a time when Greek artists were learning from sculptures encountered through Mediterranean trade and travel. https://www.worldhistory.org/Riace_Bronzes/ Over time, Greek artists began paying closer attention to how weight shifts in the body and how muscles look during movement. Instead of presenting the human figure as perfectly balanced, they experimented with asymmetry. The Riace Bronzes (460-450 BCE), unlike the stillness of earlier works, displayed warriors standing with their weight resting on one leg while the other remains relaxed. The hips and torso are both twisted, creating a figure that appears capable of motion or in the midst of motion, resulting in more life-like statues. Seen together, these sculptures reveal cultural contact throughout history and the interconnectedness of the ancient world. Artists, including those of Ancient Greece, are constantly inspired by what came before them. Cultural exchange has always remained vital to antiquity, and SASA champions this by challenging the euro-centric view of Classics. With members all around the world, it is important to remind ourselves that even in the face of efforts to erase this fact, Classics will always belong to all peoples.

By Chaeeun Lee SASA places great value on scholarship, something that goes hand in hand with reading, language, and writing. Yet in a rapidly changing world, these practices are increasingly viewed as a burden rather than a necessity. It has become far easier to scroll through short videos than to pause, read carefully, and reflect. In many ways, instant consumption has begun to replace thoughtful engagement, raising concerns about declining literacy and attention spans in modern society (Perfas 2025). While knowledge has been preserved through written texts for thousands of years, modern habits often favor speed over depth. Studies suggest that increased exposure to short-form digital media can negatively affect attention span and academic performance, further discouraging sustained reading and writing practices (Haliti-Sylaj 2024). This raises an important question: if we do not read, if we do not write, and if we never take time to organize our thoughts, how can we grow as individuals or as a society? Writing has long served as more than a method of communication; it is a tool for thinking, understanding, and self-examination. As scholars have noted, the history of writing is inseparable from the history of humanity itself, shaping how societies develop, govern, and remember (Stephens 2023). To me, the reason writing holds such meaning is that it provides clarity. Writing allows thoughts and emotions to be examined rather than left to drift aimlessly. When ideas remain unexamined, confusion can build and subtly shape how we understand the world. Taking time to reflect through writing creates space for deliberate understanding, and this belief in reflection and thoughtful engagement closely aligns with the values that SASA promotes through scholarship and study. Writing matters for three key reasons. First, it encourages inward reflection, allowing individuals to examine and express ideas creatively. Second, it gives people ownership over their thoughts by transforming fleeting impressions into deliberate understanding. Finally, it strengthens critical thinking by teaching how to organize ideas, evaluate evidence, and reason clearly, skills that are increasingly vital in an age of information overload and declining literacy rates (Perfas 2025). Ancient civilizations deeply understood the importance of writing. In Mesopotamia, cuneiform tablets preserved laws, economic records, and cultural traditions that allowed societies to function and endure. In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle used written dialogues and treatises not only to record ideas but to test and refine them through argument and debate. Roman education similarly emphasized rhetoric and writing as essential skills for clear thinking and persuasive communication. These civilizations thrived in part because they valued writing not merely as record-keeping, but as a way to shape thought, transmit knowledge, and preserve culture across generations (Stephens 2023). world history archive/alamy SASA continues this tradition today through its commitment to Ancient Studies and academic inquiry. The study of the ancient world requires close reading of texts, careful attention to language, and thoughtful interpretation; all skills that writing develops. By encouraging engagement with ancient sources, SASA helps ensure that writing remains a meaningful practice that connects modern students to the long continuum of human thought. Ultimately, writing is not just a skill; it is a way of making sense of life. Even small exercises, such as writing to clarify personal goals or questions, can bring insight and understanding. By choosing to write, we risk very little, yet gain clarity, perspective, and a deeper connection to both ourselves and the long tradition of human thought that organizations like SASA seek to preserve. References Haliti-Sylaj, Trendeline, and Alisa Sadiku. “Impact of Short Reels on Attention Span and Academic Performance of Undergraduate Students.” Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics , vol. 10, no. 3, 23 Aug. 2024, pp. 60–68, files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1454296.pdf . Perfas, Samantha Laine. “What’s Driving Decline in U.S. Literacy Rates?” Harvard Gazette , 24 Sept. 2025, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2025/09/whats-driving-decline-in-u-s-literacy-rates/ . Stephens, Walter. “The History of Writing Is the History of Humanity.” Literary Hub , 10 Nov. 2023, lithub.com/the-history-of-writing-is-the-history-of-humanity/ .

By: Dr. Pallavi Mohanan | Save Ancient Studies Alliance Research Intern Abstract This study examines the persistent under enrollment crisis in South Asian Studies programs across U.S. higher education from 1997-2018, during which these programs consistently graduated fewer than 20 students annually despite South Asia's increasing global significance. Through mixed-methods analysis combining federal education data (IPEDS), institutional case studies of eight universities, and policy analysis of Title VI funding patterns, this research identifies three primary factors contributing to this marginalization: institutional resource allocation failures that position area studies as peripheral, geopolitical paradoxes where strategic importance fails to generate academic investment, and structural vulnerabilities affecting specialized regional programs broadly. Comparative analysis with Ancient American Studies and East Asian Studies reveals that South Asian Studies' challenges reflect both field-specific issues and a systemic crisis in the Cold War-era area studies model. The post-9/11 security focus produced minimal enrollment impact, while India's economic rise channelled student interest toward business and STEM fields rather than humanities-based area studies. This research contributes to understanding how universities in the United States produce- or fail to produce- regional expertise in an era of globalization, with implications for federal education policy, university resource allocation, and the sustainability of specialized knowledge production in contemporary higher education. Keywords : Area Studies Enrollment, South Asian Studies, Higher Education Policy, Title VI Funding, Regional Expertise Production. Introduction Between 1997 and 2018, South Asian Studies programs in U.S. universities confronted a persistent and paradoxical enrollment crisis, consistently graduating fewer than 20 students annually despite profound transformations in South Asia's global position (National Centre for Education Statistics, 2019). This period witnessed India's dramatic emergence as a major economic power, with GDP growing from approximately $400 billion to nearly $3 trillion (World Bank, 2019). Simultaneously, Pakistan assumed a central role in post-9/11 geopolitics as a frontline state in the war on terror, while the South Asian diaspora population in the United States expanded to exceed four million people, becoming one of the fastest-growing and most economically successful immigrant communities (Pew Research Centre, 2025). Yet despite these developments, U.S. universities failed to produce commensurate numbers of South Asia specialists, raising critical questions about how institutions prioritize regional expertise. If universities face challenges maintaining programs focused on a region of 1.8 billion people with substantial U.S. strategic, economic, and diplomatic connections, what might this suggest about the area studies model's contemporary applicability? As Szanton (2004) has argued, area studies programs were explicitly designed to produce the kind of deep cultural knowledge, linguistic competency, and historical understanding necessary for effective engagement with diverse world regions. The persistent inability to attract students to South Asian Studies programs suggests either a fundamental mismatch between this educational model and contemporary student needs, or a failure of institutions to adequately communicate the value and relevance of such expertise. This study addresses three interconnected research questions that probe different dimensions of this phenomenon. First, what institutional, geopolitical, and academic factors explain the persistent under-enrollment in South Asian Studies programs from 1997-2018? Second, do South Asian Studies face unique challenges specific to this region, or does its marginalization reflect broader structural vulnerabilities affecting specialized area studies programs across the board? Third, what do enrollment patterns reveal about the relationship between geopolitical significance and academic investment in regional expertise? The 1997-2018 timeframe was selected deliberately to capture critical developments that shaped the landscape of area studies education. This period encompasses the pre-9/11 baseline, allowing assessment of enrollment patterns before the security environment dramatically shifted. It includes the post-9/11 decade, during which one might have expected heightened attention to South Asia given Afghanistan and Pakistan's centrality to U.S. military and diplomatic efforts. The timeframe also captures the 2008 financial crisis and its aftermath, when university budget constraints intensified and many institutions undertook significant program consolidations. Finally, it extends through the subsequent decade of adjustment, allowing examination of whether programs recovered or continued declining. This temporal scope permits analysis of how external shocks and long-term structural trends interact to shape program viability, distinguishing between temporary fluctuations and persistent patterns that challenge fundamental assumptions about the relationship between geopolitical importance and academic prioritization. Literature Review The National Defence Education Act of 1958 represented a watershed moment in federal investment in higher education, establishing the institutional infrastructure for producing regional expertise through Title VI funding (Engerman, 2009). This legislation, passed in direct response to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, explicitly linked national security to educational capacity in foreign languages and area studies. Scholars have extensively documented how this federal funding architecture shaped program development, faculty hiring patterns, and curricular priorities, essentially creating an academic infrastructure aligned with state interests (Cumings, 1997; Rafael, 1994). South Asian Studies developed within this Cold War framework but occupied a distinctly ambiguous position in the hierarchy of regional priorities. Unlike East Asian Studies, which focused intensively on China as a communist adversary and Japan as a crucial ally, South Asian Studies lacked the urgency of direct superpower confrontation. India's non-aligned status meant it was neither clearly friend nor foe in U.S. strategic calculations, while Pakistan's shifting alliances created inconsistent policy attention. This intermediate status in the geopolitical imagination contributed to chronic underfunding relative to other area studies fields, establishing patterns of marginalization that would persist even as South Asia's global significance grew. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 prompted scholarly reassessment of area studies frameworks, as researchers debated whether Cold War-era geographic approaches remained analytically useful in an increasingly interconnected world, with some advocating for thematic rather than regional organization (Miyoshi & Harootunian, 2002; Appadurai, 1996). These intellectual discussions occurred alongside broader shifts in higher education, including declining humanities enrollment—particularly after 2008—and student preferences for STEM and pre-professional programs, with area studies facing additional structural challenges related to interdisciplinary coordination, language requirements, and less clearly defined career pathways (Indicators, 2018). The September 11, 2001 attacks generated renewed attention to the importance of regional expertise, particularly regarding the Middle East and South Asia. Federal initiatives like the National Security Language Initiative, launched in 2006, designated languages including Urdu, Hindi, and Punjabi as "critical" to national security (Wiley, 2007). Yet this policy attention did not translate into sustained enrollment growth in South Asian Studies programs. Several explanations have been proposed for this disconnect. The institutional alignment between area studies programs and national security agencies may have negatively influenced the appeal of these programs among students with varying perspectives on government surveillance policies and military engagement. Additionally, alternative pathways to regional expertise emerged through policy schools and international relations programs that offered more professionally-oriented training without requiring intensive language study. Limited empirical research exists comparing enrollment patterns across different area studies fields, though East Asian Studies appears to maintain relatively stronger enrollment, likely due to economic ties and popular culture interest (Katzenstein, 2013). Despite extensive literature on area studies' intellectual evolution, surprisingly little empirical research systematically examines enrollment patterns, institutional decision-making processes, or student motivations. This study addresses that significant gap through systematic analysis of enrollment data and institutional practices. Methodology This study employs a mixed-methods research design that combines quantitative enrollment analysis, qualitative institutional case studies, and policy document analysis to examine the persistent under-enrollment in South Asian Studies programs. This methodological triangulation allows for comprehensive examination of the phenomenon from multiple analytical perspectives, capturing aggregate national trends, institutional-level decision-making processes, and the broader policy environment that shapes program viability (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). By integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches, the research design addresses both the scope of the enrollment crisis and the complex institutional and policy mechanisms that produce and sustain it. The quantitative component draws primarily on data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, the comprehensive data collection program administered by the National Centre for Education Statistics. IPEDS collects annual data from all institutions participating in federal student aid programs, making it the most complete source of information on degree completions across U.S. higher education (Ginder et al., 2019). The system provides completion data organized by Classification of Instructional Programs codes, allowing systematic tracking of bachelor's degrees awarded in South Asian Studies, identified by CIP code 05.0125, alongside comparative area studies fields. The analytical approach employs descriptive statistics to track annual graduation numbers from 1997 through 2018, establishing baseline patterns and identifying temporal trends. Comparative analysis examines South Asian Studies enrollment alongside Ancient American Studies, East Asian Studies, Middle Eastern Studies, and General Area Studies programs. This comparative framework is essential for determining whether South Asian Studies faces unique challenges or whether its marginalization reflects broader structural vulnerabilities affecting specialized regional programs. However, IPEDS data has inherent limitations, capturing only students who formally declare majors and complete degrees, not those who take courses, pursue minors, or develop informal concentrations in South Asian topics. The qualitative component consists of institutional case studies examining six universities selected to represent diversity across multiple dimensions. The sample includes variation in institution type, encompassing major research universities and liberal arts colleges with their distinct missions and resource structures. Geographic distribution captures regional differences in institutional cultures and student populations, while variation in local South Asian diaspora population density reflects how proximity to substantial South Asian communities might influence program visibility and student interest. Institutions are selected to represent different program structures, including standalone departments with dedicated faculty lines, interdisciplinary programs coordinating across departments, and certificate or minor programs without major offerings. The case study sites include the University of Pennsylvania, University of Chicago, University of California at Berkeley, Columbia University, University of Texas at Austin, and University of Wisconsin-Madison. For each institution, data collection encompasses annual major declarations and graduations spanning 1997-2018, faculty size and hiring patterns, course offerings and enrollment figures, administrative positioning, and budget allocations where publicly available. Case study analysis identifies institutional factors associated with relatively stronger or weaker enrollment outcomes, revealing how local contexts, administrative decisions, and resource allocation patterns shape program viability. The third methodological component examines policy and geopolitical contexts that frame institutional decision-making. This includes systematic analysis of Title VI National Resource Centre designations and Foreign Language and Area Studies fellowship allocations for South Asian Studies programs, tracking funding levels, geographic distribution patterns, and potential correlations with enrollment trends. Federal education policy documents, congressional testimony, and strategic initiatives related to area studies and language education from 1997-2018 are analysed to understand how policy discourse and funding priorities evolved. A geopolitical timeline maps major events affecting South Asia, including the 1998 nuclear tests, the September 11 attacks and subsequent Afghanistan intervention, the 2008 Mumbai attacks, and ongoing regional tensions, against enrollment trends to assess whether external events influence student interest in measurable ways. The analysis employs a multi-level framework that examines factors operating at macro, meso, and micro scales. The macro level encompasses federal policy, funding patterns, and geopolitical contexts that shape the overall environment for area studies. The meso level focuses on institutional priorities, resource allocation decisions, and administrative structures that determine program positioning within universities. The micro level considers student decision-making processes, career perceptions, and curricular accessibility factors that influence individual choices about majors. This framework allows identification of how factors at different scales interact to produce enrollment outcomes. Quantitative Enrollment Analysis Federal education data reveals stark and persistent patterns in South Asian Studies enrollment over the 22-year study period from 1997 to 2018. Annual bachelor's degree completions remained consistently below 20 students nationally, with several years recording fewer than 10 graduates across all U.S. institutions of higher education. To contextualize this figure, South Asian Studies graduates represented approximately 0.001% of all bachelor's degrees awarded annually in the United States, a proportion so minimal as to render the field statistically invisible within the broader landscape of U.S. undergraduate education (National Centre for Education Statistics, 2019). This extraordinarily low enrollment persisted despite South Asia's dramatic rise in global significance during this period, creating a profound disconnect between geopolitical importance and academic investment in regional expertise. The temporal analysis reveals three distinct phases that correspond to major external events and policy shifts. The pre-9/11 baseline period from 1997 to 2001 established a pattern of stable but minimal enrollment, averaging 12 to 15 graduates annually across all U.S. universities. This baseline reflected the field's marginal status during the final years of the Cold War framework, when South Asia occupied an ambiguous position in the U.S. strategic priorities. The post-9/11 period from 2002 to 2008 witnessed a slight uptick in graduations, reaching 15 to 18 students annually, suggesting a modest institutional and student response to increased regional attention following the September 11 attacks and subsequent military interventions in Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, this increase proved both temporary and limited in scope, failing to generate the sustained growth that might have been expected given South Asia's centrality to United States foreign policy during this period. The post-financial crisis decade from 2009 to 2018 saw enrollment return to baseline levels or experience slight decline, averaging 10 to 15 graduates annually. This pattern suggests that whatever momentum the field gained from post-9/11 attention dissipated as universities faced budget constraints and students increasingly prioritized professionally-oriented programs during economic uncertainty. Placing South Asian Studies within comparative context reveals both shared vulnerabilities and distinctive patterns across specialized area studies programs. Ancient American Studies emerges as even more severely marginalized, graduating only 1 to 20 students annually nationwide. This field confronts unique challenges related to the historical marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems, ongoing institutional colonialism, and complex questions about who should study indigenous cultures and through what methodological frameworks. East Asian Studies maintains significantly larger enrollment at 100 to 180 graduates annually, though this figure remains small in absolute terms relative to major fields of study. The stronger performance of East Asian Studies likely reflects multiple factors including substantial economic ties between the United States, China, and Japan, larger heritage language speaker populations that provide a natural recruitment base, and popular culture interest in anime, K-pop, and other cultural products that create pathways to academic engagement. Middle Eastern Studies demonstrates a different trajectory, showing a pronounced post-9/11 growth spike followed by gradual decline, suggesting that geopolitical events can temporarily boost student interest but that sustained enrollment requires ongoing institutional support and student perception of career relevance. Enrollment distribution patterns reveal extreme concentration within a small number of elite research universities. Approximately 60 to 70% of all South Asian Studies graduates emerge from just 5 to 7 institutions, primarily Ivy League universities and flagship state research universities that hold Title VI National Resource Centre designations. This concentration indicates that program viability depends heavily on achieving critical mass across multiple dimensions including specialized faculty clusters, comprehensive library and research resources, federal funding support, and institutional prestige that enhances student recruitment capacity. Liberal arts colleges and regional universities rarely sustain standalone South Asian Studies programs, instead offering occasional courses through disciplinary departments such as history, anthropology, or religious studies. This institutional concentration raises questions about the geographic and social accessibility of South Asian Studies education, as the field becomes available primarily to students who can access elite institutions. Available demographic data, while limited, suggests that South Asian Studies does not primarily attract heritage students from South Asian diaspora backgrounds, a pattern that distinguishes it from some other area studies fields. Many students of South Asian descent pursue majors in STEM fields, business, or medicine rather than area studies, reflecting broader patterns of immigrant community educational priorities and career expectations. This differs somewhat from East Asian Studies, which attracts both heritage learners seeking to deepen cultural connections and non-heritage students interested in the region for economic or cultural reasons. The limited appeal to heritage populations may relate to parental expectations and career pressure within South Asian immigrant communities, perceptions that cultural knowledge can be acquired through family and community networks rather than formal academic study, and limited visibility of South Asian Studies as a viable academic and professional field. Preliminary analysis of the relationship between federal funding and enrollment reveals surprisingly weak correlations. While institutions receiving Title VI National Resource Centre designations do graduate more South Asian Studies majors than those without such support, funding increases do not produce proportional enrollment growth (As shown in Table 1). This finding challenges common assumptions that resource constraints alone explain under enrollment patterns. Even well-funded programs with substantial institutional support struggle to attract students, suggesting that demand-side factors including student interest, career perceptions, and competition from other fields matter as much as supply-side factors such as program resources and faculty expertise. Finally, South Asian Studies' enrollment challenges significantly exceed general humanities decline trends. While humanities majors overall decreased approximately 30% from peak levels during this period, South Asian Studies showed no growth from already minimal baseline levels, indicating field-specific factors beyond broad trends away from humanities education (Indicators, 2018). Institutional Case Studies Detailed examination of six institutions reveals how local contexts, administrative structures, and resource allocation patterns shape program viability in South Asian Studies. These cases demonstrate different institutional responses to the fundamental challenge of sustaining specialized regional programs in an increasingly competitive and resource-constrained higher education environment. The University of Pennsylvania represents what might be considered optimal conditions for South Asian Studies program success. The institution maintains a standalone South Asian Studies major within the School of Arts and Sciences, supported by a robust South Asia Centre that holds Title VI National Resource Centre designation and receives substantial federal funding. The program benefits from a strong faculty cluster of eight to ten specialists distributed across multiple departments including history, anthropology, religious studies, and political science, along with extensive library collections that rank among the nation's finest for South Asian materials. The centre sponsors active programming including lectures, conferences, and cultural events that maintain high visibility on campus. Despite these substantial advantages, enrollment patterns reveal the persistent challenge facing even well-resourced programs, averaging only two to three majors per year, which while among the highest nationally, remains minimal in absolute terms. Penn's case suggests that even optimal conditions including elite institutional status, dedicated resources, and faculty expertise cannot alone generate robust enrollment, indicating that demand-side constraints rather than supply-side limitations may be the binding factor in program sustainability. The University of Chicago illustrates the consolidation pressures affecting even historically prestigious programs. Chicago's South Asian Studies developed as a concentration within broader interdisciplinary frameworks, building on the institution's historically strong anthropology and history departments that produced influential scholarship on South Asia. However, enrollment patterns show a decline from three to four majors annually in the 1990s to only one to two in the 2010s. This decline coincided with faculty retirements that were not fully replaced, reflecting broader institutional budget pressures and shifting priorities. The program was gradually absorbed into a larger Global Studies framework, reducing its visibility as a standalone field and diluting its distinctive identity. Chicago's trajectory demonstrates how even prestigious institutions with strong intellectual traditions face pressure to consolidate specialized programs into broader structures, potentially sacrificing depth of regional expertise for administrative efficiency and broader student appeal. The University of California, Berkeley adopted a distinctive approach by combining South and Southeast Asian Studies into a single major, attempting to achieve critical mass through regional aggregation. This strategy produces slightly higher enrollment numbers, averaging four to six students annually, benefiting from both the regional combination that provides more curricular options and Berkeley's large undergraduate population that increases the potential recruitment pool. The program benefits significantly from the Bay Area's substantial South Asian diaspora community, which provides cultural programming opportunities, internship possibilities, and community connections that enhance the educational experience. Berkeley maintains strong language programs in multiple South Asian languages and draws on interdisciplinary faculty across numerous departments. The regional combination strategy suggests one potential approach to enhancing program viability, though it raises important questions about whether combining regions maintains the depth of specialized expertise that area studies programs traditionally aimed to provide. Columbia University maintains its South Asian Studies program through embedding within the Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies department, a structure that provides administrative stability while potentially diluting regional focus. Enrollment remains relatively stable at two to four majors annually, benefiting from Columbia's location in New York City with its large and diverse South Asian population that provides internship opportunities, cultural programming, and community engagement possibilities. The program draws strength from a robust graduate program that feeds undergraduate teaching and maintains research momentum, while institutional prestige continues to attract high-quality students despite limited numbers. Columbia's approach demonstrates how embedding South Asian Studies within larger departmental structures can provide sustainability, though enrollment remains minimal despite these favourable conditions. The University of Texas at Austin represents a different institutional model, with the South Asia Institute coordinating interdisciplinary programming without offering a standalone major, instead providing certificate options for students majoring in other fields. This structure produces few formal majors but attracts more students to certificate programs or informal concentrations that allow a combination of South Asian expertise with other academic interests. The program maintains strong language offerings and benefits from Title VI funding, but faces ongoing challenges in competing with other area studies programs for resources and student attention while lacking dedicated faculty lines that would provide institutional stability. Texas illustrates the administrative complexity of sustaining interdisciplinary programs without clear departmental homes, requiring substantial coordination effort that may not produce proportional enrollment returns. The University of Wisconsin-Madison adopted a certificate-only model that may represent a more sustainable approach to South Asian Studies education. Rather than offering a major, Wisconsin provides certificate programs that attract five to ten completions annually, allowing students to major in other fields while developing South Asian expertise. This approach builds on Wisconsin's historically strong area studies tradition while acknowledging that South Asian Studies never achieved the critical mass necessary for departmental status. The certificate model enables students to combine regional expertise with majors perceived as more practical or professionally oriented, potentially addressing career concerns that deter students from area studies majors while still developing regional knowledge and cultural competency. Liberal arts colleges present a composite picture of institutions that generally cannot sustain formal South Asian Studies programs due to their smaller scale and different educational missions. These institutions typically offer occasional courses through disciplinary departments such as history, religion, or anthropology, with students sometimes writing senior theses on South Asian topics but lacking formal program structures. Small faculty sizes preclude the specialized clusters necessary for area studies programs, as institutions prioritize maintaining disciplinary departments over developing regional specializations. This pattern limits systematic South Asian expertise development outside major research universities, raising questions about the geographic and institutional accessibility of such education. Cross-case analysis reveals several consistent patterns that illuminate the structural challenges facing South Asian Studies programs. A resource paradox emerges whereby even well-resourced programs struggle with enrollment, suggesting that resources are necessary but insufficient conditions for program success (as shown in Table 2). Institutions increasingly embed South Asian Studies within broader structures such as Global Studies, Asian Studies, or combined regional departments, reducing standalone visibility while potentially providing administrative stability. Certificate programs appear more sustainable than majors, allowing students to develop regional expertise while pursuing other primary fields of study. Program viability correlates strongly with institutional prestige and research university status, concentrating opportunities within elite institutions. Finally, small faculty clusters prove vulnerable to retirements and hiring freezes, creating ongoing instability that undermines program continuity and student confidence in choosing these fields of study. Geopolitical and Policy Context Analysis Federal funding patterns for South Asian Studies reveal a complex landscape of modest support that failed to translate into sustained program growth or student enrollment. Title VI funding for South Asian Studies National Resource Centres remained relatively stable throughout the 1997-2018 period, with four to six centres receiving designation in each competitive funding cycle. However, this apparent stability masked a more troubling reality as funding levels failed to keep pace with inflation, representing a real decline in federal support over time. The designated centres, primarily located at elite research universities including the University of Pennsylvania, University of Chicago, Columbia University, and University of California at Berkeley, received funding that supported faculty positions, library acquisitions, and programming, but these resources proved insufficient to generate the critical mass necessary for robust undergraduate enrollment. Foreign Language and Area Studies fellowships for South Asian languages including Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, and Tamil numbered only 30 to 50 annually across all institutions, a figure far smaller than allocations for East Asian or Middle Eastern languages. This limited fellowship support both reflected and reinforced South Asian Studies' marginal status within the federal area studies funding hierarchy, creating a self-perpetuating cycle where limited resources constrained program development, which in turn justified continued limited investment. The September 11, 2001 attacks precipitated intensified federal attention to regional expertise and language capacity, generating policy initiatives that might have been expected to benefit South Asian Studies given Afghanistan and Pakistan's centrality to subsequent military and diplomatic efforts. The National Security Language Initiative, launched in 2006, designated Urdu as a "critical language" for national security purposes, and funding for South Asia-related programs increased modestly through various federal agencies (Wiley, 2007). However, this policy attention produced surprisingly limited impact on undergraduate enrollment patterns, suggesting a fundamental disconnect between policy rhetoric and educational outcomes. Several factors may explain this paradox. The time lag inherent in policy initiatives meant that funding increases often proved temporary, arriving before universities could build sustainable institutional capacity and departing before programs could demonstrate results. Additionally, students interested in South Asia policy careers increasingly pursued alternative pathways through international relations programs, security studies centres, or policy schools that offered more professionally-oriented training without requiring the intensive language study and cultural immersion central to traditional area studies. The geopolitical framing of South Asia through security and terrorism lenses may have inadvertently narrowed the region's image in student minds, obscuring its cultural richness, economic dynamism, and intellectual traditions that might otherwise attract academic interest. Institutional responses to major geopolitical events affecting South Asia revealed a consistent pattern of temporary interest spikes that failed to translate into sustained enrollment growth. The 1998 nuclear tests by India and Pakistan, the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the 2008 Mumbai attacks, and ongoing India-Pakistan tensions each generated temporary increases in course enrollment and public programming attendance, as students and community members sought to understand unfolding events. However, these current events-driven interest surges consistently failed to overcome structural barriers to area studies enrollment including career concerns, language requirements, interdisciplinary complexity, and competition with professionally-oriented majors. This pattern suggests that while geopolitical events can stimulate curiosity and short-term engagement, they cannot address the fundamental challenges that deter students from committing to specialized regional studies as their primary academic focus. India's dramatic economic transformation from the 1990s onward presented another paradox in the relationship between geopolitical significance and academic enrollment. India's emergence as a major economic power, its development as a global information technology hub, and the deepening U.S.-India strategic partnership might logically have been expected to boost South Asian Studies enrollment as students sought to position themselves for careers engaging with this rising market. Interest in India's economic rise was largely captured by business schools and economics departments rather than area studies programs, as students and institutions framed economic engagement in terms of market opportunities rather than cultural understanding. India's association with technology and engineering sectors reinforced existing student preferences for STEM fields over humanities-based area studies approaches. Additionally, second-generation South Asian Americans, who might have been expected to show particular interest in academic study of their heritage region, often pursued professional careers in medicine, engineering, or business rather than academic specialization in regional studies, reflecting broader patterns of immigrant community educational priorities and career expectations. Comparison with Middle Eastern Studies provides an instructive perspective on the relationship between geopolitical events and enrollment patterns. Middle Eastern Studies experienced significant post-9/11 enrollment growth as students sought to understand a region suddenly central to U.S. foreign policy and public discourse. However, this growth proved temporary, with enrollment declining after 2010 as initial curiosity waned and structural challenges reasserted themselves. South Asian Studies experienced a much weaker post-9/11 effect, possibly because Afghanistan and Pakistan received less sustained public attention than Iraq, South Asia remained secondary to the Middle East in policy discourse, and existing program infrastructure was weaker, limiting institutional capacity to capitalize on whatever interest existed. Title VI funding, while valuable for maintaining basic institutional infrastructure, demonstrated significant limitations as a tool for sustaining area studies enrollment. The funding's indirect effects, supporting centres and fellowships rather than directly incentivizing undergraduate participation, meant that resources often failed to reach the level where student decisions were made. Elite concentration of funding in research universities left most institutions without support for developing regional expertise, while four-year funding cycles created uncertainty that complicated long-term planning and program development. Perhaps most fundamentally, total funding for all area studies remained modest relative to the scale of the U.S. higher education system, suggesting that federal policy alone cannot solve enrollment challenges without complementary institutional commitment and genuine student demand (as shown in Table 3). Comparative Analysis: The Broader Area Studies Crisis Examining Ancient American Studies and East Asian Studies alongside South Asian Studies reveals common structural vulnerabilities that suggest a broader crisis affecting specialized area studies programs across U.S. higher education. All area studies fields confront the fundamental challenge of interdisciplinary complexity, requiring coordination across multiple departments without typically controlling faculty lines or curriculum directly. This administrative burden creates confusion for students navigating degree requirements while imposing substantial coordination costs on institutions already facing budget pressures. Language requirements present another shared barrier, as intensive study in languages perceived as difficult or having limited practical application deters students concerned about grade point averages and time to graduation. Career pathway opacity represents perhaps the most significant common challenge, as students struggle to envision concrete professional trajectories utilizing area studies expertise, unlike the clear pathways offered by engineering, business, or health professions. Institutional marginality compounds these problems, as area studies programs rarely achieve departmental status with dedicated faculty lines, making them vulnerable to budget cuts and administrative reorganization during periods of financial constraint. Additionally, disciplinary fragmentation occurs when students interested in regional topics pursue them through traditional disciplinary majors in history, anthropology, or political science rather than specialized area studies programs, dispersing potential enrollment across multiple departments and reducing the visibility of regional expertise as a coherent field of study. Despite these shared vulnerabilities, each area studies field confronts distinctive challenges that shape its particular trajectory. Ancient American Studies faces the most severe marginalization, with enrollment numbers approaching zero at many institutions. The field confronts ongoing legacies of colonialism and debates about who should study indigenous cultures and through what frameworks, creating intellectual and political tensions that may deter both students and institutions from engagement. East Asian Studies maintains relatively stronger enrollment due to multiple reinforcing factors including substantial economic ties between the United States and China and Japan, larger heritage language speaker populations, and popular culture interest in anime, K-pop, and other cultural products that create pathways to academic engagement. Yet even this comparatively successful field graduates only 100 to 180 students annually nationwide, demonstrating the broader challenges facing specialized regional programs. South Asian Studies occupies an intermediate position within this landscape, larger than Ancient American Studies but far smaller than East Asian Studies, lacking both the economic drivers that sustain interest in East Asia and the decolonization discourse that energizes some segments of Ancient American Studies programming. These patterns suggest that the Cold War-era area studies model faces systemic challenges in contemporary higher education that transcend individual field characteristics. Globalization critiques question whether bounded geographic regions remain meaningful analytical units in an era of transnational flows, diaspora formations, and global interconnection, challenging the fundamental epistemological foundations of area studies approaches (Appadurai, 1996). Disciplinary competition intensifies as traditional departments increasingly incorporate global and regional content into their curricula, reducing the perceived need for standalone area studies programs while potentially fragmenting regional expertise across multiple institutional locations. Student preferences for pre-professional programs leave diminishing space for specialized regional expertise in undergraduate education, as career concerns and debt burdens drive enrollment toward fields with clearer employment outcomes (As shown in Table 4). Resource constraints force universities to consolidate programs, with small area studies programs particularly vulnerable to elimination or merged into broader international studies frameworks that may sacrifice depth for administrative efficiency. Alternative pathways through policy schools, international affairs programs, and disciplinary departments may be replacing traditional area studies in producing regional specialists, but whether these alternatives provide equivalent depth and cultural competency remains unclear. The shift away from intensive area studies toward broader international studies programs may sacrifice the deep regional knowledge, linguistic capacity, and cultural understanding that area studies programs traditionally aimed to develop. Without robust area studies programs, the United States may struggle to maintain capacity in less commonly taught languages essential for diplomatic, commercial, and cultural engagement. These concerns extend beyond academic institutions to affect diplomatic capacity, business competitiveness, and cultural understanding in an increasingly interconnected world where regional expertise remains crucial for effective engagement across cultural and linguistic boundaries. Conclusion This research identifies three primary factors explaining the persistent under enrollment crisis in South Asian Studies programs across U.S. higher education from 1997 to 2018. First, institutional marginalization emerges as a fundamental constraint, with South Asian Studies programs occupying precarious positions within university structures, rarely constituting standalone departments with dedicated faculty lines, and remaining dependent on complex interdisciplinary coordination that creates administrative burdens while making programs vulnerable to budget cuts and reorganization. Even well-resourced programs at elite universities with substantial Title VI funding, extensive library collections, and strong faculty clusters struggle to attract students, suggesting that institutional commitment, while necessary, proves insufficient without broader structural changes in how universities and students conceptualize regional expertise. Second, a geopolitical paradox characterizes the relationship between South Asia's growing global significance and academic investment in regional expertise. Despite India's emergence as a major economic power, Pakistan's centrality to post-9/11 security concerns, and the substantial South Asian diaspora population in the United States, these developments failed to translate into increased academic enrollment. The post-9/11 security focus produced minimal enrollment impact, while India's economic rise channelled student interest into business schools and STEM fields rather than humanities-based area studies programs. This reveals a fundamental disconnect between geopolitical importance and academic investment, challenging assumptions about how strategic significance influences educational priorities. Third, South Asian Studies' challenges reflect broader structural vulnerabilities affecting specialized area studies programs throughout U.S. higher education. The Cold War-era model of intensive regional expertise faces mounting pressure from globalization discourse that questions geographic boundaries, disciplinary competition as traditional departments incorporate global content, student career concerns that favour professionally-oriented programs, and university budget constraints that make small specialized programs vulnerable to elimination or consolidation. These findings contribute significantly to theoretical understanding of the relationship between geopolitical significance and academic knowledge production. The research demonstrates that strategic importance does not automatically generate academic investment, as institutional inertia, student career calculations, and disciplinary structures mediate this relationship in complex ways that often prevent translation of external significance into internal educational priorities. The study also illuminates fundamental tensions in contemporary higher education between specialized expertise and broad interdisciplinary knowledge, humanities-based cultural understanding and professional skill development, long-term knowledge production and immediate career preparation, and regional depth versus global breadth. South Asian Studies' marginalization reflects broader shifts in how universities conceptualize their mission and how students approach education in an era of rising costs, employment concerns, and changing expectations about higher education's purpose and value. The policy implications of these findings operate at multiple levels within the higher education ecosystem. Federal education policy faces the challenge that Title VI funding, while valuable for maintaining basic infrastructure, cannot alone sustain area studies programs without complementary institutional commitment and genuine student demand. Policy interventions could include funding that matches inflation rather than declining in real terms, incentives for undergraduate enrollment alongside graduate training and faculty development, support for alternative program formats such as certificates and minors, and initiatives linking area studies expertise to careers in government, business, and nonprofit sectors. Universities face decisions about maintaining specialized area studies programs or adapting to new models of global knowledge production. Available approaches include consolidation into broader regional or global studies programs, certificate and minor formats allowing students to combine regional expertise with other majors, integration with professional schools in business, law, and policy to establish career pathways, and improved career advising and alumni networking to demonstrate the applicability of area studies expertise. Curriculum innovation offers several approaches to address enrollment challenges. These include flexible language requirements and alternative competency assessments that lower entry barriers. Programs can provide clearer career pathway articulation and emphasize transferable skill development to address employability concerns. Contemporary issues such as business, technology, and environmental topics can be integrated with traditional humanities content. Experiential learning through study abroad programs, internships, and community engagement allows practical application of regional knowledge. However, this study acknowledges several important limitations that constrain the scope and generalizability of findings. IPEDS data captures only degree completions rather than course enrollment or broader student interest, limiting understanding of the full extent of engagement with South Asian topics across U.S. higher education. The observational nature of the data limits ability to establish causal relationships, as experimental or quasi-experimental designs would be necessary to strengthen causal claims about the factors driving enrollment patterns. The research examines institutional and policy factors but does not directly survey students about their decision-making processes, meaning that student perspectives and motivations remain largely inferred rather than directly documented. Longitudinal tracking of student cohorts would provide valuable insights into how initial interest in South Asian topics translates or fails to translate into major declarations and career choices. Future research should examine several key areas. First, student decision-making processes regarding area studies majors can be explored through surveys and interviews. Second, career outcomes for area studies graduates should be assessed to determine whether employment concerns reflect actual market conditions. Third, alternative models for regional expertise development may be emerging outside traditional university structures and warrant investigation. Fourth, comparative international perspectives on area studies education could reveal whether these challenges are specific to U.S. institutions or represent broader trends in global higher education. Beyond South Asian Studies specifically, this research illuminates fundamental questions about knowledge production in contemporary universities that have implications for multiple fields and institutional priorities. If universities cannot sustain area studies programs, alternative institutions including think tanks, government agencies, and private sector organizations may fill the gap, but with potentially significant implications for critical inquiry and the independence of regional expertise from immediate policy or commercial interests. South Asian Studies programs experienced consistent under-enrollment from 1997 to 2018. This pattern emerged from multiple intersecting factors: institutional marginalization, geopolitical paradoxes, and structural challenges affecting specialized area studies. The trend indicates a disconnect between South Asia's increasing global importance and corresponding academic investment levels. Institutions allocated limited resources to area studies programs, while students prioritized professional degree programs for career advancement. Geopolitical attention to the region did not translate into academic program growth with Cold War-era educational models creating structural vulnerabilities for these programs. Comparative analysis shows that South Asian Studies follows broader patterns affecting specialized area studies programs generally. This suggests the issue requires systemic solutions rather than field-specific interventions, raising important questions about institutional priorities and educational models. Current approaches have not sustained robust regional expertise development creating challenges for developing the cultural competency and linguistic capacity necessary for effective global engagement. References Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization (Vol. 1). University of Minnesota Press. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage publications. Cumings, B. (1997). Boundary displacement: Area studies and international studies during and after the Cold War. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 29(1), 6-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.1997.10409695 Engerman, D. C. (2009). Know your enemy: The rise and fall of America's Soviet experts. Oxford University Press. Ginder, S. A., Kelly-Reid, J. E., & Mann, F. B. (2019). Enrollment and Employees in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2017; and Financial Statistics and Academic Libraries, Fiscal Year 2017: First Look (Provisional Data). NCES 2019-021Rev. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019021REV.pdf Indicators, H. (2018). The State of the Humanities 2018: Graduates in the Workforce & Beyond. In American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Katzenstein, P. J. (Ed.). (2013). Sinicization and the rise of China: Civilizational processes beyond East and West. Routledge. Miyoshi, M., & Harootunian, H. (Eds.). (2002). Learning places: The afterlives of area studies. Duke University Press. National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Digest of education statistics. U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/ Pew Research Center. (2025). Facts about Indians in the U.S. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-indians-in-the-u-s/ Rafael, V. L. (1994). The cultures of area studies in the United States. Social Text, (41), 91-111. https://doi.org/10.2307/466834 Szanton, D. L. (Ed.). (2004). The politics of knowledge: Area studies and the disciplines. University of California Press. Wiley, T. G. (2007). The foreign language “crisis” in the United States: Are heritage and community languages the remedy?. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 4(2-3), 179-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427580701389631 World Bank. (2019). World development indicators. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators To read more from Dr. Mohanan, read her statistical analysis supplemental paper titled, " Measuring Marginalization: A Statistical Examination of South Asian Studies Program Enrollment in U.S. Higher Education" here:

The winter season is steadily approaching, and with it SASA has prepared a special Archaeogaming Live Session over on our Twitch  channel! Join Madigan Shepherd this Friday, December 19th at 12 pm PST  and embark on a journey within the captivating game Year Walk. Based on the ancient Swedish tradition and holiday of Årsgång, Year Walk  is an immersive adventure game sprinkled with horror elements (those who are easily spooked, be warned!). Set foot on this unique first person experience with a heavy focus on story telling, the supernatural, and the lengths humankind will go to satisfy its natural inclination to try and glean the future.  As always, SASA’s goal with our Archaeogaming livestreams is to strike the perfect balance between entertaining and informative. Viewers can expect to learn something fascinating about antiquity while also being exposed to lovingly crafted digital worlds. Even if you’ve played Year Walk  before or any of the titles we decide to explore in the future, you’ll find yourself coming away with a brand new perspective !  If you wish to support us so that we can continue making both our Archaeogaming streams and modules  come to life, consider donating  to SASA ! Our organization is always looking for more donors and any amount is greatly appreciated. SASA will always strive to promote the crucial importance of Ancient Studies, and our commitment to Archaeogaming is just one piece of that puzzle. In case you’re not able to make this stream, we keep our playthroughs up on Twitch for as long as possible. You can also catch our Archaeogaming playthroughs on SASA’s YouTube channel .  We hope to see you there!

At SASA, we love celebrating the people who bring our mission to life, and I had the pleasure of speaking to Arianna Winslow, who does just that. From her work with SASA as an archaeogaming volunteer to her current role as a travel journalist, archaeologist and writer, Arianna has continued to show how the passion for the ancient world can inspire new opportunities today.   Arianna’s love for archaeology didn’t begin in a museum or lecture hall – it began in her own garden, digging for hidden treasures. With a mother who worked as a marine biologist and a father in the US Government, Arianna grew up in an environment that valued travel, learning and exploration. A particular trip to Greece at age eleven, wandering through the Minoan ruins in Crete, fostered Arianna’s passion for Classics and the Mediterranean and laid the path for a future archaeologist.   After completing a Masters in Ancient History at the University of Manchester, Arianna now works as a journalist for TheTravel . She describes acting as an “intermediary between the public and the scholarly communities that focus on the ancient world” through making ancient studies accessible to general audiences while also ensuring her work retains its inherit academic nature. Her research focuses on the late Roman Republic and early Imperial period, and she’s currently developing a miniseries on tourism in the Roman world. Her recent work explores how Romans travelled for leisure, healing, and culture—covering topics like ancient souvenirs and visits to sacred healing sites. Through her writing, she not only sheds light on the sophisticated travel culture of ancient Rome but allows her readers to empathise with people of the past whose habits were very similar to ours.   Arianna was an active member of SASA’s archaeogaming team, her main focus being to source primary images for their educational lesson plans. One of her key projects was focused on Ancient Japan—something that resonated deeply with her. Having lived in Japan as a child, many of the images she uncovered felt very familiar. Although she hasn’t been back in some time, working on the Ancient Japan project for SASA brought a strong sense of nostalgia and personal connection to her research.    When it comes to promoting Classics, Arianna stresses the importance of making it fun and accessible, especially for people outside of academic circles. “We need to meet people where they are” she said, through using language and resources that feel welcoming. That is one of the reasons she loves working with SASA. The archaeogaming team as a teaching tool aligns with her belief in creative, engaging education. She also places particular emphasis on recapturing “the wonder of studying history for an adult audience” and rekindling the novelty of how it felt as a child to immerse yourself in a history book and be fascinated by its findings. Arianna also highlights the importance of representation in the field, especially for women, people of colour, and LGBTQ+ community. She notes that many people still don’t see themselves reflected in the way history is often told.   Looking ahead, she hopes to write more articles about Roman travel and trade with India and Southeast Asia, and intends to pursue a PhD. She is also excited about the idea of writing historical fiction for children, helping young readers connect with the ancient world through storybooks.   And if she could time travel? Arianna would love to witness the mystery of the Bronze Age collapse, study the craftsmanship of Minoan clothing, sit in on a Roman dinner party, and walk the ancient streets of Puteoli. But for now, she continues to bring the ancient world to life through her own research and unwavering curiosity.   Interested in getting involved with SASA? We welcome support of all kinds—whether you're looking to volunteer, be an intern, or contribute in other ways. Visit this link  to learn how you can join us in preserving and promoting ancient studies!   By Alice Connor

Welcome to the team, SASA Interns! We are absolutely thrilled to welcome our fantastic new cohort of interns to SASA! Our interns bring a variety of diverse skills and fresh perspectives to our SASA teams across research, event and conference planning, blog writing, design, social media and many more. The goal of our Internship Program is for SASA Internships to be mutually beneficial, such that interns gain experience in multiple areas, learn skills, gain knowledge, and build connections with numerous people in Ancient Studies and the nonprofit world, by helping to work on various SASA projects. Say hello to a few of our newest recruits: Yesenia Brocamontes (she/her) Major Donors Team History What inspired you to join SASA? What inspired me to join SASA is knowing the importance of becoming a good team leader or member in an organization who can be able to network and socialize with other people. As a college student, I always knew that attending classes is never enough to gain experience for the real world. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I hope to gain the experience necessary to be successful in my career in researching, or assisting in government law agencies, since I am studying for a History degree. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? An ancient culture that I would like to explore civilizations during and after the Ice Age like the Homo Sapiens and the Neanderthals because it is always important to know our backgrounds and where we came from. What is a fun fact about you? One fun fact about me is that I learned to dance Folklore, a Mexican culture dance. I have also participated in an Aztec dance in high school. George Richards (he/him) Executive Team Ancient History and Archaeology What inspired you to join SASA? Thinking A LOT about the ancient world has made me very happy and provided a lot of direction to my life, so supporting the passion of others was a huge influence for me. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? The opportunity to make a meaningful contribution towards the growth of classical studies on a global scale!   If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? Early Classical Sparta, so we could finally see through `Le Mirage Spartiate´! What is a fun fact about you? I represent my college soccer O team (Yes, the P team does exist…) Madeleine Casco (she/her) Fundraising Team Classical Civilisation What inspired you to join SASA? I felt inspired to join SASA's team as an intern since the organisation itself really aligns with my core interest in Classical work. I value their aim of broadening research and materials in the Classics field as I feel there just is not enough out there!  What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I feel this internship is giving me the opportunity to not only engage in work associated with Classics but it is also teaching me about marketing since I am joining the fundraising team. I am excited to gain relevant experience and knowledge in this subject area as it is a possible career path for me. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? I would love to experience a day in Rome during its early foundations. There is so much lost material from this monumental period of history where the myth versus history debate is prominent when discussing ancient sources. I would love to go back then to observe way of life as well as see all the lost archeological finds and written materials. What is a fun fact about you? I love to travel and I have climbed the Athenian Acropolis! Emma Tessitore Inspire Team Anthropology and Classical Studies What inspired you to join SASA? I was inspired to join SASA's internship because I discovered ancient studies my freshman year of college through a Greek mythology class and was immediately transfixed. I also really resonate with SASA's mission of reversing the downward trend of ancient studies in colleges both because I wish I had discovered ancient studies sooner and because my college's ancient studies department is very small and focuses mainly on Greek and Roman civilization. I want to learn more about other civilizations and cultures and inspire others to do the same. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I am hoping to make connections with scholars in ancient studies and professionals in the field. I also hope to learn more about other cultures my institution doesn't teach about, as I said above. My long-term career goal is to work in archaeology post-grad and SASA is a great place to start to meet people and learn more about what that might look like for me.  If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? If I could explore any culture firsthand it would be ancient Egypt, specifically the Old Kingdom. I would like to explore Old Kingdom Egypt the most because I'd love to see the pyramids of Giza in their prime. I want to know exactly what they looked like and what they were used for. The Giza plateau now looks nothing like it did then and I would love to explore it in all its glory. What is a fun fact about you? A fun fact about me is that I am legally blind in my left eye but my favorite hobby is to read! Casey Carver Creative Team I focus on accessibility-driven graphic and web design, with a strong emphasis on WCAG compliance, strategic storytelling, and inclusive user experiences. My work blends emotional resonance with visual clarity, and I’m constantly exploring how design can be both beautiful and functional for everyone. What inspired you to join SASA? I was drawn to SASA’s internship because of its commitment to inclusive design and community impact. As someone who’s passionate about accessibility and advocacy, I saw this as a chance to contribute meaningfully while growing alongside like-minded peers. The opportunity to blend strategic thinking with creative execution felt like the perfect fit for my strengths and values. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I’m hoping to refine my portfolio with real-world projects that reflect both technical skill and human-centered design. I also want to deepen my understanding of how advocacy campaigns operate at scale—especially how storytelling and systems thinking can drive change. And honestly, I’m excited to learn from others, share resources, and support the team however I can. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? I’d love to explore ancient Mesopotamia. It’s often called the cradle of civilization, and I’m fascinated by how early systems—like writing, law, and urban planning—emerged there. Seeing how those foundational ideas shaped societies would be incredible, especially from a systems design perspective. What is a fun fact about you? I once created a visual timeline that mapped out a nonprofit’s entire campaign strategy—from email blasts to display ads—and turned it into an interactive mentorship tool. It started as a portfolio piece, but ended up helping others plan their own advocacy projects. I love when design becomes a ripple effect.

Boo! SASA is inviting you to a month of frights and festivities with our 2025 Halloween Bash! We have tons of eye-opening and exciting ways for you to interact with our community during this spooky season. We’ll be hosting a number of free live events and panels taking place from October 25th to October 31st, providing engaging activities for newer members and veterans alike. If you’d like to donate  to our organization, now’s the perfect opportunity! This is also the time of year that SASA looks for new supporters and recurring donors. Our current goal is to gain 5 new SASA supporters and a total donation of $500. Any amount goes directly to supporting the various projects we create and maintain including Live Events, Archeogaming Learning Modules, the Open Access Database, Research on the Downward Trend, and more. The revitalization of Ancient Studies for both students and the public has always remained our mission, and you can help us get there! Here are some of the spooktacular events we’re offering this year: Panel Discussion: Banquet for the Dead Sat, Oct 25th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 12:30 PM EDT   Join Habiba Hussein El-tayeb with guests Julie Levy, Martine Diepenbroek, Irina Maria Manea, and Lillian Cespedes Gonzalez to explore the muddled line between the living and the dead in ancient rituals! This panel discussion focuses on the ways various cultures confronted, accepted, and coexisted with humanity’s oldest primal fear. What do these rituals say about us? RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Book Club: 1177 B.C. with Eric Cline and Glynnis Fawkes Sun, Oct 26th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 1:00 PM EDT Hosted by MJ Pankey, get lost in this entertaining and historically accurate story with us! You’ll find yourself transported back to 1177 B.C. with this vividly illustrated tale, exploring one of history’s greatest mysteries: the collapse of the Late Bronze Age. Eric Cline and Glynnis Fawkes take us through the lives of Pel, a member of the marauding Sea Peoples, and Shesha, an Egyptian scribe. Join them as they visit the kingdoms of the Minoans, Mycenaeans, Hittites, Canaanites, Assyrians, and Egyptians to witness firsthand the misfortunes that befell them and caused their eventual ruin.  This book invites the reader to think about the surprising factors and theories that explain why ancient and modern societies perish or thrive when met with the direly unexpected.  Check out SASA's Bookshop to find discounts on all the books and novels featured during SASA Book Club livestreams! Buy the book here , 10% of every book purchased through SASA's bookshop comes directly back to help us Save Ancient Studies! RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Death from Above! in the Babylonian Astronomical Omens Mon, Oct 27th, 2025, 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM EDT The ancient Babylonians believed the heavens foretold death, sometimes with chilling precision. Join E. L. Meszaros for this gripping master class on these eerily accurate Ancient Babylonian Omens, navigating the stars alongside them to understand and decipher the sky above us. Explore the scribal and scholarly traditions that preserved these ominous predictions, and uncover some of the most spine-tingling omens ever recorded. RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Supernatural Iceland: The Tale of Bard the God of Snowfell Tue, Oct 28th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 1:00 PM EDT Join Irina Maria Manea and discover the fantastical Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, The Saga of Bard the Snowfell God, a medieval tale set in the rugged and mysterious Snaefellsnes peninsula in west Iceland exploring a world of giants, trolls and legendary happenings revolving around a character called Bard and his family. Even today, Bard the guardian spirit is said to wander the region "in a grey cowl with a walrus-hide rope around him, and a cleft staff in his hand with a long and thick gaff", making him a perfect Halloween treat. RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Healing, Dreams, and Curses: Unveiling the Supernatural in Ancient Greece Fri, Oct 31st, 2025, 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM EDT Join Dr. Manolis Pagkalos and move past the myths into the real world of ancient Greece for a look at magic and medicine. This masterclass offers insight into the beliefs and practices of Ancient Greeks at a time when the divine and magic were intertwined in daily life. Epigraphic evidence, the direct voice of the ancient world, whispers human wishes: desperation, hope, and a profound belief in the unseen. This masterclass is designed for a wide audience, from history buffs to the simply curious. No experience necessary, just a willingness to explore the eerie side of ancient life! RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. So don’t miss out; RSVP now and join SASA for a month jam packed with history and haunts!

From its inception, SASA has always strived to create a community of like-minded people who share a passion for keeping ancient studies alive. Our vision is to help enable classics to become an integral part of worldwide education, and to cut through the rhetoric that it is a non-essential part of understanding everyday life. We maintain that everyone deserves access to this knowledge regardless of gender identity, sexual orientation, nationality, age, race, disability, religion, and socio-economic or professional status.  While our organization has and always will be grateful for those who bunker down for the long haul, It’s also a proud feeling to know that SASA has been a revolving door for several people who embrace our ideals. That’s why we feel it'd be both interesting and important to check in with some of our alums to explore all the ways in which past interns and volunteers continue to be exemplars in revitalizing Classical education whether it be through academic, political, or artistic means. We'll be kicking off this mini-series with none other than or most recent Managing Director Julie Levy! About Julie SASA was fortunate to have Julie Levy among our ranks, an independent scholar and activist with a practical head on her shoulders. Julie has a BA in Classical Civilizations and East Asian Studies, an MA in Classical Philology, and an MA in Classical Studies. While no longer involved with formal academia, Julie always jumps at the chance to engage with fellow scholars and classical enthusiasts alike in hopes of making the discipline more accessible and prolific.  Julie played an integral role in making sure our organization operated efficiently and utilized the unique talents each member had to offer. She also took charge in leading our Fifth Annual Virtual Conference this year, which explored body and medicine in antiquity. A multitasker at heart, every project and role was on the table! Julie was always wearing several hats, eager to fulfill her academic interests and aid communities around her. Her past projects included several papers and presentations, including but not limited to:  “The Mechanics of Antiquity”  an article for Paizomen, a Database of Classical Antiquity Games (2021) “By All the Wake and Waters!: Language and Worldbuilding in Heaven's Vault” for Hitpoints and History’s 2024 Archaeogaming conference “Does It Belong in a Museum?: A Case Study on Stardew Valley and Roots of Pacha” for Hitpoints and History’s 2025 Archaeogaming conference The crossroads between interactive art and academia is what draws Julie to classically influenced videogames, zeroing in on how they can inform our discussion of archaeology. She brought this energy to our Archaeogaming  streams with every broadcast; Before her departure Julie conducted our Archaeogaming stream on the game “Outer Wilds”, exploring how the game’s attitudes towards material culture can lead us to ask “What do a culture's surviving artifacts tell us about the lives of the people who lived here?”. SASA’s continued goal with our livestreams  is to engage our viewers in discussing ancient themes in popular game franchises, aided by experts in the respective fields being tackled. Julie Levy was an invaluable cog in that machine!  For ongoing and upcoming projects, Julie has several things on her docket. The YouTube channel Zylla's Athenaeum  is Julie’s brainchild, crafted to be a hub where she can freely share what she knows with a larger community. The channel hosts a varied collection of video-essays on philosophical and political topics, as well as educational commentary on several forms of media. She also has several publications lined up, working with a publisher on her collection of fantasy short stories and books on the topic of Archaeogaming as a whole.  Unsurprising for a past member of SASA, Levy’s altruism leads her to be proactive in local politics. As of now her main concerns lie with her community’s zoning laws, the inclusion of walkable infrastructure, and the election of officials which will take the onus to facilitate the change the area needs. At all times, she wishes to inspire others to take agency of their lives and engage with the world at large.  Going forward Julie plans to throw herself fully into her passion projects, academic interests, and political activism. From videogame conferences to linguistic papers, to enacting effective leadership strategies and organizational change. Wherever she goes, we here at SASA are confident that Julie Levy will continue to make our organization proud!

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction of early sports Sports have played a monumental role throughout history, serving as a source of entertainment and fun all over the globe. They have evolved through time, reflecting changes in culture and advancements in technology. These changes have increased accessibility to both watch and play, as well as observing improved athlete performances. This paper will examine the historical development of sports and how they have transformed and taken over the globe.   The playing of sports is evident in some of the earliest known civilizations. One of the oldest documented sports that still exists today is boxing. Boxing originated as a form of combat or entertainment as early as 3000 BC in Mesopotamia, with early clay tablets showing depictions of fist-fighting (SportsGeeks, 2023). Additionally, Ancient Egyptians, Ancient Chinese, and Ancient Indian civilizations engaged in a variety of different physical activities. These included archery, wrestling, martial arts, and chariot racing. In Ancient Egypt, archery was a skill that was revered, with Egyptians believing that the god Horus had the eye of a falcon. In Ancient China, wrestling was popular and seen as a way of developing strength and discipline. Martial arts were developed and popular in Ancient India, created and influenced by Hindu philosophy and spirituality.   Other influential sports like cricket and field hockey have their origins traced back centuries. Cricket originated in England in the 16 th  century as a game played by shepherds and farmers. The game continued to evolve, adding the hitting of a set game ball with a club or mat. As time went on, cricket developed into a sport that was widely popular amongst the upper classes, where it was played in schools and on large estates. As time went on, cricket continued to develop and is played by many across the globe. Field hockey originated in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Persia, with players using curved sticks to hit balls made of wood or leather (SportsGeeks, 2023). As the game went on, advancements were made to the sticks and balls used. It was not until the 1800s that England created the first rules and regulations around the sport, generating set expectations for all involved.   Soccer One of the most well-known and popular sports today, soccer, has its origins traced back to Ancient China. Here, people would play a game called ‘cuju’ using a leather ball and a net. This evolved and was adopted by other civilizations, who added their own rules and variations to the game. In the 1800s, England developed the sport into much of what it is today and has continued to attract billions of players and viewers.   The codification of soccer by England in 1863 through the creation of the Football Association (FA) was a monumental moment in the sport. This established common rules and objectives for the game, as opposed to the wide variety that were previously experienced. Over the next few decades, soccer rapidly grew, with the first international soccer competition, the British Home Championship, taking place in 1884 (Kovacs, 2023). Several decades later, in 1930, the FIFA World Cup was created, solidifying soccer’s role in global sports and entertainment. The World Cup continues to be played every 4 years, showcasing the best teams from across the entirety of the world, bringing in billions of viewers. As soccer became more developed, the rise of club football followed, and by the mid-20 th century, many leagues started popping up. Some of the most popular include the English Premier League in England, La Liga in Spain, and Serie A in Italy, all of which are still in place today and generate some of the best teams in the world. International and club team rivalries have brought massive excitement and anticipation to these games. One of the most popular of these matchups occurs every year between La Liga teams, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid, in a match termed El Clásico. As a whole, the reach that soccer has across the globe is largely unmatched, as it remains one of the most viewed and participated in sports each and every year.   Olympic Games The rise of the Olympic Games represented a monumental change in sports history. With the creation of the games in Ancient Greece in 776 BCE, the rise of organized sports continued to grow. Early Olympic games allowed the Greeks to showcase physical form, largely through events like running, wrestling, and chariot racing. These games had both social and religious significance to them as they were both a form of entertainment as well as a dedication to Zeus, the king of the Greek gods (Sports History Network, 2024a). As the games went on, sport in Ancient Rome moved from honoring the gods to creating spectacle and entertainment. Animal hunts, gladiator events, and chariot races took place in large arenas, most notably the Colosseum. Ancient Romans were focused on power and control, while the Ancient Greeks wanted to showcase fitness and athletic ability.   In Ancient Greece, the Olympics would be held every 4 years, where athletes would come safely to Olympia and compete in a range of competitions. This continued for centuries until Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned the games, attempting to suppress pagan traditions (Sports History Network, 2024b). This lasted many centuries, until 1896, when Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator and historian, was inspired by the Greek traditions and brought the games back. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, featuring 241 athletes from 14 countries who competed in 43 events, with the emphasis of the games being to promote peace, friendship, and understanding through sports (Sports History Network, 2024b). Since their return, the Olympics have continued to grow each year, adding new events and growing in size and popularity. The addition of the Winter Olympics in 1924 added an entirely new aspect to global competition as sports like hockey, skiing, figure skating, and more were included.   While a great sporting event experienced on the national stage, the Olympics have had a much greater impact on the world than just entertainment. They have served as a platform to promote political, economic, and social change. Significant political and social statements were made during the 1936 games in Germany and the boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. From an economic viewpoint, although the games are a massive financial undertaking for the host country, they provide an avenue for transformation. The potential benefits include increased tourism, job creation, and global exposure with prior Olympic cities like Barcelona and Beijing using the Olympics to transform their urban landscapes and boost their international profiles (Sports History Network, 2024b).   Basketball The sport of Basketball was created in 1891 by James Naismith. To better understand its creation, a deeper dive into Naismith’s background is beneficial. In 1888, Naismith graduated from McGill, where he was awarded a gold medal for best all-around athlete. He then went on to pursue a graduate degree in theology from Presbyterian College. During his studies, he would regularly attend local YMCA’s, pairing his interest in theology and athletics. After finishing his degree, he moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, and began working as a physical education teacher at the YMCA International Training School ( Basketball.org , 2019). As he worked through the repetitive games of the time, he grew bored and sought to create his own game that others could play. Using the equipment available at his disposal and drawing from his childhood experience in a game called ‘duck on a rock,’ Naismith created a game with a peach basket and a soccer ball in which the goal was to lob the ball into the basket ( Basketball.org , 2019). As he implemented the game in his own YMCA, it soon began to spread to other colleges, YMCA’s and local areas. As the game continued to grow, so did Naismith. In 1895, he moved to Colorado to become the Physical Education director at a YMCA there, and in 1998, he obtained a medical degree from the University of Colorado Medical School. From there, he left Colorado to become the assistant gymnasium director and basketball coach at the University of Kansas. Although his time as a basketball coach at Kansas was largely unsuccessful, he continued to be involved with education and growing the sport in a variety of countries around the globe.   Rowing One sport that has experienced major transformations and developments is the sport of rowing. Rowing was first known as a means of transportation in the ancient cultures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome (Olympedia, 2024). It was not until the 17 th  and 18 th  centuries that rowing turned into a sport that was competed in across the globe. Early races were heavily bet on and were a popular Olympic event. The first Oxford-Cambridge race took place in 1828, and Yale and Harvard first rowed against each other in 1852 (Olympedia, 2024). This rich history of the sport has led to many well-known races and competitions across the globe. Some of these include the Head of the Charles Regatta in Boston every year and Henley Royal Regatta in England. These events host a variety of races, including 8-person boats, 4-person boats, doubles, singles, and more.   Football Early versions of the sport of football existed in the 19 th  century, with the game being a mix of rugby and current football rules. These games initially had few clear rules, with groups of students forming two sides and competing against one another (Lambrecht, 2021). The game also lacked much of the protective gear and rules to protect the players that are evident in today's game. This led to many schools and areas banning the sport. In 1869, things began to change when Rutgers and Princeton played what became known as the first intercollegiate football game (Lambrecht, 2021). This game began setting rules for the sport with coaches, established positions, and tactics for playing the game. While the game had much more room for development, these early games laid the foundation for more to come.   By 1876, an association of Harvard, Columbia, and Yale formed a group that formalized rules. This early group relied on kicking to score all of the points, and it was not until 1881 that the touchdown became more valuable (Lambrecht, 2021). By 1906, the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed and began to organize the game on a nationwide level. The sport continued to grow, moving teams into over 400 cities.   With the growth of the sport and development of the playing rules, there emerged an importance in generating player safety rules to ensure athletes were not seriously harmed or killed while playing the game. Regulations for throwing the football and the introduction of the line of scrimmage helped establish better rules for safety, reducing some of the violence that previously existed in the sport. This was furthered with the creation of the National Football League (NFL).   The National Football League was created in 1920 with 14 founding member teams. As years went on, more teams were added to the league and more modifications were made to improve the sport. Rules were passed to turn football into a more pass-heavy game as opposed to running and kicking. This created much of the foundation for the game as it is played today. A championship game was added in 1932, and in 1958, the championship game was broadcast live on TV (Lambrecht, 2021). As the sport grew, the NFL merged with the AFL, forming the NFC and AFC conferences that are seen in the sport today. As the game continues to grow, the 32 teams that make up the league continue to produce stars and generate billions in revenue with millions of viewers.   Pickleball One of the fastest-growing sports in the United States and around the globe is Pickleball. Although its rapid growth has recently happened, the sport was created over 50 years ago in 1965 when Joel Pritchard and Bill Bell were seeking a source of entertainment (Brandt, 2024). They used a random assortment of sports gear, playing around and making changes until they eventually created the game that is now known as Pickleball.   Conclusion Although the sports mentioned throughout this paper are important, they are not a complete sum of all sports. Other sports like Baseball, Hockey, and many more have also changed the world and the way sports have taken over the world. Advances in technology, changes in methods of training, and increased inclusion in the global world have all reshaped how people participate in sports. As the world moves forward, sports are expected to move with it, with new sports potentially being created in the future to engage more people around the globe. Sources Basketball.org . (2019). Dr. James Naismith Biography – Inventor of Basketball . Basketball.org . https://www.basketball.org/history/dr-james-naismith/ Brandt, J. (2024, February 2). The history of pickleball: From 1965 to today.  The History of Pickleball: From 1965 to Today. https://www.playpickleball.com/the-history-of-pickleball/ Kovacs, A. (2023, August 3). The History of Soccer: Tracing the World’s Beautiful Game - Metro League . Metro League. https://www.metroleague.org/history-of-soccer_soc/ Lambrecht, E. (2021, September 21). How did American football develop - DailyHistory.org . Www.dailyhistory.org . https://www.dailyhistory.org/How_did_American_football_develop Olympedia. (2024). Olympedia – Rowing . Www.olympedia.org . https://www.olympedia.org/sports/ROW Sports History Network. (2024a, August 2). The History Of Sports Explained . Sports History Network. https://sportshistorynetwork.com/multiple-sports/history-of-sports-explained/ Sports History Network. (2024b, August 2). The History of the Olympic Games: From Ancient Greece to the Modern Era . Sports History Network. https://sportshistorynetwork.com/olympics/history-of-olympic-games-from-ancient-greece-to-modern-era/ SportsGeeks. (2023, July 26). The evolution of sports: From ancient times to modern-day.  SportsGeeks. https://sportsgeeks.net/the-evolution-of-sports-from-ancient-times-to-modern-day/