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At SASA, we love celebrating the people who bring our mission to life, and I had the pleasure of speaking to Arianna Winslow, who does just that. From her work with SASA as an archaeogaming volunteer to her current role as a travel journalist, archaeologist and writer, Arianna has continued to show how the passion for the ancient world can inspire new opportunities today.   Arianna’s love for archaeology didn’t begin in a museum or lecture hall – it began in her own garden, digging for hidden treasures. With a mother who worked as a marine biologist and a father in the US Government, Arianna grew up in an environment that valued travel, learning and exploration. A particular trip to Greece at age eleven, wandering through the Minoan ruins in Crete, fostered Arianna’s passion for Classics and the Mediterranean and laid the path for a future archaeologist.   After completing a Masters in Ancient History at the University of Manchester, Arianna now works as a journalist for TheTravel . She describes acting as an “intermediary between the public and the scholarly communities that focus on the ancient world” through making ancient studies accessible to general audiences while also ensuring her work retains its inherit academic nature. Her research focuses on the late Roman Republic and early Imperial period, and she’s currently developing a miniseries on tourism in the Roman world. Her recent work explores how Romans travelled for leisure, healing, and culture—covering topics like ancient souvenirs and visits to sacred healing sites. Through her writing, she not only sheds light on the sophisticated travel culture of ancient Rome but allows her readers to empathise with people of the past whose habits were very similar to ours.   Arianna was an active member of SASA’s archaeogaming team, her main focus being to source primary images for their educational lesson plans. One of her key projects was focused on Ancient Japan—something that resonated deeply with her. Having lived in Japan as a child, many of the images she uncovered felt very familiar. Although she hasn’t been back in some time, working on the Ancient Japan project for SASA brought a strong sense of nostalgia and personal connection to her research.    When it comes to promoting Classics, Arianna stresses the importance of making it fun and accessible, especially for people outside of academic circles. “We need to meet people where they are” she said, through using language and resources that feel welcoming. That is one of the reasons she loves working with SASA. The archaeogaming team as a teaching tool aligns with her belief in creative, engaging education. She also places particular emphasis on recapturing “the wonder of studying history for an adult audience” and rekindling the novelty of how it felt as a child to immerse yourself in a history book and be fascinated by its findings. Arianna also highlights the importance of representation in the field, especially for women, people of colour, and LGBTQ+ community. She notes that many people still don’t see themselves reflected in the way history is often told.   Looking ahead, she hopes to write more articles about Roman travel and trade with India and Southeast Asia, and intends to pursue a PhD. She is also excited about the idea of writing historical fiction for children, helping young readers connect with the ancient world through storybooks.   And if she could time travel? Arianna would love to witness the mystery of the Bronze Age collapse, study the craftsmanship of Minoan clothing, sit in on a Roman dinner party, and walk the ancient streets of Puteoli. But for now, she continues to bring the ancient world to life through her own research and unwavering curiosity.   Interested in getting involved with SASA? We welcome support of all kinds—whether you're looking to volunteer, be an intern, or contribute in other ways. Visit this link  to learn how you can join us in preserving and promoting ancient studies!   By Alice Connor

Welcome to the team, SASA Interns! We are absolutely thrilled to welcome our fantastic new cohort of interns to SASA! Our interns bring a variety of diverse skills and fresh perspectives to our SASA teams across research, event and conference planning, blog writing, design, social media and many more. The goal of our Internship Program is for SASA Internships to be mutually beneficial, such that interns gain experience in multiple areas, learn skills, gain knowledge, and build connections with numerous people in Ancient Studies and the nonprofit world, by helping to work on various SASA projects. Say hello to a few of our newest recruits: Yesenia Brocamontes (she/her) Major Donors Team History What inspired you to join SASA? What inspired me to join SASA is knowing the importance of becoming a good team leader or member in an organization who can be able to network and socialize with other people. As a college student, I always knew that attending classes is never enough to gain experience for the real world. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I hope to gain the experience necessary to be successful in my career in researching, or assisting in government law agencies, since I am studying for a History degree. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? An ancient culture that I would like to explore civilizations during and after the Ice Age like the Homo Sapiens and the Neanderthals because it is always important to know our backgrounds and where we came from. What is a fun fact about you? One fun fact about me is that I learned to dance Folklore, a Mexican culture dance. I have also participated in an Aztec dance in high school. George Richards (he/him) Executive Team Ancient History and Archaeology What inspired you to join SASA? Thinking A LOT about the ancient world has made me very happy and provided a lot of direction to my life, so supporting the passion of others was a huge influence for me. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? The opportunity to make a meaningful contribution towards the growth of classical studies on a global scale!   If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? Early Classical Sparta, so we could finally see through `Le Mirage Spartiate´! What is a fun fact about you? I represent my college soccer O team (Yes, the P team does exist…) Madeleine Casco (she/her) Fundraising Team Classical Civilisation What inspired you to join SASA? I felt inspired to join SASA's team as an intern since the organisation itself really aligns with my core interest in Classical work. I value their aim of broadening research and materials in the Classics field as I feel there just is not enough out there!  What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I feel this internship is giving me the opportunity to not only engage in work associated with Classics but it is also teaching me about marketing since I am joining the fundraising team. I am excited to gain relevant experience and knowledge in this subject area as it is a possible career path for me. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? I would love to experience a day in Rome during its early foundations. There is so much lost material from this monumental period of history where the myth versus history debate is prominent when discussing ancient sources. I would love to go back then to observe way of life as well as see all the lost archeological finds and written materials. What is a fun fact about you? I love to travel and I have climbed the Athenian Acropolis! Emma Tessitore Inspire Team Anthropology and Classical Studies What inspired you to join SASA? I was inspired to join SASA's internship because I discovered ancient studies my freshman year of college through a Greek mythology class and was immediately transfixed. I also really resonate with SASA's mission of reversing the downward trend of ancient studies in colleges both because I wish I had discovered ancient studies sooner and because my college's ancient studies department is very small and focuses mainly on Greek and Roman civilization. I want to learn more about other civilizations and cultures and inspire others to do the same. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I am hoping to make connections with scholars in ancient studies and professionals in the field. I also hope to learn more about other cultures my institution doesn't teach about, as I said above. My long-term career goal is to work in archaeology post-grad and SASA is a great place to start to meet people and learn more about what that might look like for me.  If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? If I could explore any culture firsthand it would be ancient Egypt, specifically the Old Kingdom. I would like to explore Old Kingdom Egypt the most because I'd love to see the pyramids of Giza in their prime. I want to know exactly what they looked like and what they were used for. The Giza plateau now looks nothing like it did then and I would love to explore it in all its glory. What is a fun fact about you? A fun fact about me is that I am legally blind in my left eye but my favorite hobby is to read! Casey Carver Creative Team I focus on accessibility-driven graphic and web design, with a strong emphasis on WCAG compliance, strategic storytelling, and inclusive user experiences. My work blends emotional resonance with visual clarity, and I’m constantly exploring how design can be both beautiful and functional for everyone. What inspired you to join SASA? I was drawn to SASA’s internship because of its commitment to inclusive design and community impact. As someone who’s passionate about accessibility and advocacy, I saw this as a chance to contribute meaningfully while growing alongside like-minded peers. The opportunity to blend strategic thinking with creative execution felt like the perfect fit for my strengths and values. What are you hoping to get out of this internship? I’m hoping to refine my portfolio with real-world projects that reflect both technical skill and human-centered design. I also want to deepen my understanding of how advocacy campaigns operate at scale—especially how storytelling and systems thinking can drive change. And honestly, I’m excited to learn from others, share resources, and support the team however I can. If you could explore any ancient culture firsthand, which would it be and why? I’d love to explore ancient Mesopotamia. It’s often called the cradle of civilization, and I’m fascinated by how early systems—like writing, law, and urban planning—emerged there. Seeing how those foundational ideas shaped societies would be incredible, especially from a systems design perspective. What is a fun fact about you? I once created a visual timeline that mapped out a nonprofit’s entire campaign strategy—from email blasts to display ads—and turned it into an interactive mentorship tool. It started as a portfolio piece, but ended up helping others plan their own advocacy projects. I love when design becomes a ripple effect.

Boo! SASA is inviting you to a month of frights and festivities with our 2025 Halloween Bash! We have tons of eye-opening and exciting ways for you to interact with our community during this spooky season. We’ll be hosting a number of free live events and panels taking place from October 25th to October 31st, providing engaging activities for newer members and veterans alike. If you’d like to donate  to our organization, now’s the perfect opportunity! This is also the time of year that SASA looks for new supporters and recurring donors. Our current goal is to gain 5 new SASA supporters and a total donation of $500. Any amount goes directly to supporting the various projects we create and maintain including Live Events, Archeogaming Learning Modules, the Open Access Database, Research on the Downward Trend, and more. The revitalization of Ancient Studies for both students and the public has always remained our mission, and you can help us get there! Here are some of the spooktacular events we’re offering this year: Panel Discussion: Banquet for the Dead Sat, Oct 25th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 12:30 PM EDT   Join Habiba Hussein El-tayeb with guests Julie Levy, Martine Diepenbroek, Irina Maria Manea, and Lillian Cespedes Gonzalez to explore the muddled line between the living and the dead in ancient rituals! This panel discussion focuses on the ways various cultures confronted, accepted, and coexisted with humanity’s oldest primal fear. What do these rituals say about us? RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Book Club: 1177 B.C. with Eric Cline and Glynnis Fawkes Sun, Oct 26th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 1:00 PM EDT Hosted by MJ Pankey, get lost in this entertaining and historically accurate story with us! You’ll find yourself transported back to 1177 B.C. with this vividly illustrated tale, exploring one of history’s greatest mysteries: the collapse of the Late Bronze Age. Eric Cline and Glynnis Fawkes take us through the lives of Pel, a member of the marauding Sea Peoples, and Shesha, an Egyptian scribe. Join them as they visit the kingdoms of the Minoans, Mycenaeans, Hittites, Canaanites, Assyrians, and Egyptians to witness firsthand the misfortunes that befell them and caused their eventual ruin.  This book invites the reader to think about the surprising factors and theories that explain why ancient and modern societies perish or thrive when met with the direly unexpected.  Check out SASA's Bookshop to find discounts on all the books and novels featured during SASA Book Club livestreams! Buy the book here , 10% of every book purchased through SASA's bookshop comes directly back to help us Save Ancient Studies! RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Death from Above! in the Babylonian Astronomical Omens Mon, Oct 27th, 2025, 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM EDT The ancient Babylonians believed the heavens foretold death, sometimes with chilling precision. Join E. L. Meszaros for this gripping master class on these eerily accurate Ancient Babylonian Omens, navigating the stars alongside them to understand and decipher the sky above us. Explore the scribal and scholarly traditions that preserved these ominous predictions, and uncover some of the most spine-tingling omens ever recorded. RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Supernatural Iceland: The Tale of Bard the God of Snowfell Tue, Oct 28th, 2025, 11:00 AM – 1:00 PM EDT Join Irina Maria Manea and discover the fantastical Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, The Saga of Bard the Snowfell God, a medieval tale set in the rugged and mysterious Snaefellsnes peninsula in west Iceland exploring a world of giants, trolls and legendary happenings revolving around a character called Bard and his family. Even today, Bard the guardian spirit is said to wander the region "in a grey cowl with a walrus-hide rope around him, and a cleft staff in his hand with a long and thick gaff", making him a perfect Halloween treat. RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. Master Class: Healing, Dreams, and Curses: Unveiling the Supernatural in Ancient Greece Fri, Oct 31st, 2025, 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM EDT Join Dr. Manolis Pagkalos and move past the myths into the real world of ancient Greece for a look at magic and medicine. This masterclass offers insight into the beliefs and practices of Ancient Greeks at a time when the divine and magic were intertwined in daily life. Epigraphic evidence, the direct voice of the ancient world, whispers human wishes: desperation, hope, and a profound belief in the unseen. This masterclass is designed for a wide audience, from history buffs to the simply curious. No experience necessary, just a willingness to explore the eerie side of ancient life! RSVP Here! Please Note: This is a livestream on our social media channels. To join please head to our YouTube , Facebook , and Twitch  channels at the time of the stream. So don’t miss out; RSVP now and join SASA for a month jam packed with history and haunts!

From its inception, SASA has always strived to create a community of like-minded people who share a passion for keeping ancient studies alive. Our vision is to help enable classics to become an integral part of worldwide education, and to cut through the rhetoric that it is a non-essential part of understanding everyday life. We maintain that everyone deserves access to this knowledge regardless of gender identity, sexual orientation, nationality, age, race, disability, religion, and socio-economic or professional status.  While our organization has and always will be grateful for those who bunker down for the long haul, It’s also a proud feeling to know that SASA has been a revolving door for several people who embrace our ideals. That’s why we feel it'd be both interesting and important to check in with some of our alums to explore all the ways in which past interns and volunteers continue to be exemplars in revitalizing Classical education whether it be through academic, political, or artistic means. We'll be kicking off this mini-series with none other than or most recent Managing Director Julie Levy! About Julie SASA was fortunate to have Julie Levy among our ranks, an independent scholar and activist with a practical head on her shoulders. Julie has a BA in Classical Civilizations and East Asian Studies, an MA in Classical Philology, and an MA in Classical Studies. While no longer involved with formal academia, Julie always jumps at the chance to engage with fellow scholars and classical enthusiasts alike in hopes of making the discipline more accessible and prolific.  Julie played an integral role in making sure our organization operated efficiently and utilized the unique talents each member had to offer. She also took charge in leading our Fifth Annual Virtual Conference this year, which explored body and medicine in antiquity. A multitasker at heart, every project and role was on the table! Julie was always wearing several hats, eager to fulfill her academic interests and aid communities around her. Her past projects included several papers and presentations, including but not limited to:  “The Mechanics of Antiquity”  an article for Paizomen, a Database of Classical Antiquity Games (2021) “By All the Wake and Waters!: Language and Worldbuilding in Heaven's Vault” for Hitpoints and History’s 2024 Archaeogaming conference “Does It Belong in a Museum?: A Case Study on Stardew Valley and Roots of Pacha” for Hitpoints and History’s 2025 Archaeogaming conference The crossroads between interactive art and academia is what draws Julie to classically influenced videogames, zeroing in on how they can inform our discussion of archaeology. She brought this energy to our Archaeogaming  streams with every broadcast; Before her departure Julie conducted our Archaeogaming stream on the game “Outer Wilds”, exploring how the game’s attitudes towards material culture can lead us to ask “What do a culture's surviving artifacts tell us about the lives of the people who lived here?”. SASA’s continued goal with our livestreams  is to engage our viewers in discussing ancient themes in popular game franchises, aided by experts in the respective fields being tackled. Julie Levy was an invaluable cog in that machine!  For ongoing and upcoming projects, Julie has several things on her docket. The YouTube channel Zylla's Athenaeum  is Julie’s brainchild, crafted to be a hub where she can freely share what she knows with a larger community. The channel hosts a varied collection of video-essays on philosophical and political topics, as well as educational commentary on several forms of media. She also has several publications lined up, working with a publisher on her collection of fantasy short stories and books on the topic of Archaeogaming as a whole.  Unsurprising for a past member of SASA, Levy’s altruism leads her to be proactive in local politics. As of now her main concerns lie with her community’s zoning laws, the inclusion of walkable infrastructure, and the election of officials which will take the onus to facilitate the change the area needs. At all times, she wishes to inspire others to take agency of their lives and engage with the world at large.  Going forward Julie plans to throw herself fully into her passion projects, academic interests, and political activism. From videogame conferences to linguistic papers, to enacting effective leadership strategies and organizational change. Wherever she goes, we here at SASA are confident that Julie Levy will continue to make our organization proud!

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction of early sports Sports have played a monumental role throughout history, serving as a source of entertainment and fun all over the globe. They have evolved through time, reflecting changes in culture and advancements in technology. These changes have increased accessibility to both watch and play, as well as observing improved athlete performances. This paper will examine the historical development of sports and how they have transformed and taken over the globe.   The playing of sports is evident in some of the earliest known civilizations. One of the oldest documented sports that still exists today is boxing. Boxing originated as a form of combat or entertainment as early as 3000 BC in Mesopotamia, with early clay tablets showing depictions of fist-fighting (SportsGeeks, 2023). Additionally, Ancient Egyptians, Ancient Chinese, and Ancient Indian civilizations engaged in a variety of different physical activities. These included archery, wrestling, martial arts, and chariot racing. In Ancient Egypt, archery was a skill that was revered, with Egyptians believing that the god Horus had the eye of a falcon. In Ancient China, wrestling was popular and seen as a way of developing strength and discipline. Martial arts were developed and popular in Ancient India, created and influenced by Hindu philosophy and spirituality.   Other influential sports like cricket and field hockey have their origins traced back centuries. Cricket originated in England in the 16 th  century as a game played by shepherds and farmers. The game continued to evolve, adding the hitting of a set game ball with a club or mat. As time went on, cricket developed into a sport that was widely popular amongst the upper classes, where it was played in schools and on large estates. As time went on, cricket continued to develop and is played by many across the globe. Field hockey originated in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Persia, with players using curved sticks to hit balls made of wood or leather (SportsGeeks, 2023). As the game went on, advancements were made to the sticks and balls used. It was not until the 1800s that England created the first rules and regulations around the sport, generating set expectations for all involved.   Soccer One of the most well-known and popular sports today, soccer, has its origins traced back to Ancient China. Here, people would play a game called ‘cuju’ using a leather ball and a net. This evolved and was adopted by other civilizations, who added their own rules and variations to the game. In the 1800s, England developed the sport into much of what it is today and has continued to attract billions of players and viewers.   The codification of soccer by England in 1863 through the creation of the Football Association (FA) was a monumental moment in the sport. This established common rules and objectives for the game, as opposed to the wide variety that were previously experienced. Over the next few decades, soccer rapidly grew, with the first international soccer competition, the British Home Championship, taking place in 1884 (Kovacs, 2023). Several decades later, in 1930, the FIFA World Cup was created, solidifying soccer’s role in global sports and entertainment. The World Cup continues to be played every 4 years, showcasing the best teams from across the entirety of the world, bringing in billions of viewers. As soccer became more developed, the rise of club football followed, and by the mid-20 th century, many leagues started popping up. Some of the most popular include the English Premier League in England, La Liga in Spain, and Serie A in Italy, all of which are still in place today and generate some of the best teams in the world. International and club team rivalries have brought massive excitement and anticipation to these games. One of the most popular of these matchups occurs every year between La Liga teams, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid, in a match termed El Clásico. As a whole, the reach that soccer has across the globe is largely unmatched, as it remains one of the most viewed and participated in sports each and every year.   Olympic Games The rise of the Olympic Games represented a monumental change in sports history. With the creation of the games in Ancient Greece in 776 BCE, the rise of organized sports continued to grow. Early Olympic games allowed the Greeks to showcase physical form, largely through events like running, wrestling, and chariot racing. These games had both social and religious significance to them as they were both a form of entertainment as well as a dedication to Zeus, the king of the Greek gods (Sports History Network, 2024a). As the games went on, sport in Ancient Rome moved from honoring the gods to creating spectacle and entertainment. Animal hunts, gladiator events, and chariot races took place in large arenas, most notably the Colosseum. Ancient Romans were focused on power and control, while the Ancient Greeks wanted to showcase fitness and athletic ability.   In Ancient Greece, the Olympics would be held every 4 years, where athletes would come safely to Olympia and compete in a range of competitions. This continued for centuries until Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned the games, attempting to suppress pagan traditions (Sports History Network, 2024b). This lasted many centuries, until 1896, when Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator and historian, was inspired by the Greek traditions and brought the games back. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, featuring 241 athletes from 14 countries who competed in 43 events, with the emphasis of the games being to promote peace, friendship, and understanding through sports (Sports History Network, 2024b). Since their return, the Olympics have continued to grow each year, adding new events and growing in size and popularity. The addition of the Winter Olympics in 1924 added an entirely new aspect to global competition as sports like hockey, skiing, figure skating, and more were included.   While a great sporting event experienced on the national stage, the Olympics have had a much greater impact on the world than just entertainment. They have served as a platform to promote political, economic, and social change. Significant political and social statements were made during the 1936 games in Germany and the boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. From an economic viewpoint, although the games are a massive financial undertaking for the host country, they provide an avenue for transformation. The potential benefits include increased tourism, job creation, and global exposure with prior Olympic cities like Barcelona and Beijing using the Olympics to transform their urban landscapes and boost their international profiles (Sports History Network, 2024b).   Basketball The sport of Basketball was created in 1891 by James Naismith. To better understand its creation, a deeper dive into Naismith’s background is beneficial. In 1888, Naismith graduated from McGill, where he was awarded a gold medal for best all-around athlete. He then went on to pursue a graduate degree in theology from Presbyterian College. During his studies, he would regularly attend local YMCA’s, pairing his interest in theology and athletics. After finishing his degree, he moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, and began working as a physical education teacher at the YMCA International Training School ( Basketball.org , 2019). As he worked through the repetitive games of the time, he grew bored and sought to create his own game that others could play. Using the equipment available at his disposal and drawing from his childhood experience in a game called ‘duck on a rock,’ Naismith created a game with a peach basket and a soccer ball in which the goal was to lob the ball into the basket ( Basketball.org , 2019). As he implemented the game in his own YMCA, it soon began to spread to other colleges, YMCA’s and local areas. As the game continued to grow, so did Naismith. In 1895, he moved to Colorado to become the Physical Education director at a YMCA there, and in 1998, he obtained a medical degree from the University of Colorado Medical School. From there, he left Colorado to become the assistant gymnasium director and basketball coach at the University of Kansas. Although his time as a basketball coach at Kansas was largely unsuccessful, he continued to be involved with education and growing the sport in a variety of countries around the globe.   Rowing One sport that has experienced major transformations and developments is the sport of rowing. Rowing was first known as a means of transportation in the ancient cultures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome (Olympedia, 2024). It was not until the 17 th  and 18 th  centuries that rowing turned into a sport that was competed in across the globe. Early races were heavily bet on and were a popular Olympic event. The first Oxford-Cambridge race took place in 1828, and Yale and Harvard first rowed against each other in 1852 (Olympedia, 2024). This rich history of the sport has led to many well-known races and competitions across the globe. Some of these include the Head of the Charles Regatta in Boston every year and Henley Royal Regatta in England. These events host a variety of races, including 8-person boats, 4-person boats, doubles, singles, and more.   Football Early versions of the sport of football existed in the 19 th  century, with the game being a mix of rugby and current football rules. These games initially had few clear rules, with groups of students forming two sides and competing against one another (Lambrecht, 2021). The game also lacked much of the protective gear and rules to protect the players that are evident in today's game. This led to many schools and areas banning the sport. In 1869, things began to change when Rutgers and Princeton played what became known as the first intercollegiate football game (Lambrecht, 2021). This game began setting rules for the sport with coaches, established positions, and tactics for playing the game. While the game had much more room for development, these early games laid the foundation for more to come.   By 1876, an association of Harvard, Columbia, and Yale formed a group that formalized rules. This early group relied on kicking to score all of the points, and it was not until 1881 that the touchdown became more valuable (Lambrecht, 2021). By 1906, the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed and began to organize the game on a nationwide level. The sport continued to grow, moving teams into over 400 cities.   With the growth of the sport and development of the playing rules, there emerged an importance in generating player safety rules to ensure athletes were not seriously harmed or killed while playing the game. Regulations for throwing the football and the introduction of the line of scrimmage helped establish better rules for safety, reducing some of the violence that previously existed in the sport. This was furthered with the creation of the National Football League (NFL).   The National Football League was created in 1920 with 14 founding member teams. As years went on, more teams were added to the league and more modifications were made to improve the sport. Rules were passed to turn football into a more pass-heavy game as opposed to running and kicking. This created much of the foundation for the game as it is played today. A championship game was added in 1932, and in 1958, the championship game was broadcast live on TV (Lambrecht, 2021). As the sport grew, the NFL merged with the AFL, forming the NFC and AFC conferences that are seen in the sport today. As the game continues to grow, the 32 teams that make up the league continue to produce stars and generate billions in revenue with millions of viewers.   Pickleball One of the fastest-growing sports in the United States and around the globe is Pickleball. Although its rapid growth has recently happened, the sport was created over 50 years ago in 1965 when Joel Pritchard and Bill Bell were seeking a source of entertainment (Brandt, 2024). They used a random assortment of sports gear, playing around and making changes until they eventually created the game that is now known as Pickleball.   Conclusion Although the sports mentioned throughout this paper are important, they are not a complete sum of all sports. Other sports like Baseball, Hockey, and many more have also changed the world and the way sports have taken over the world. Advances in technology, changes in methods of training, and increased inclusion in the global world have all reshaped how people participate in sports. As the world moves forward, sports are expected to move with it, with new sports potentially being created in the future to engage more people around the globe. Sources Basketball.org . (2019). Dr. James Naismith Biography – Inventor of Basketball . Basketball.org . https://www.basketball.org/history/dr-james-naismith/ Brandt, J. (2024, February 2). The history of pickleball: From 1965 to today.  The History of Pickleball: From 1965 to Today. https://www.playpickleball.com/the-history-of-pickleball/ Kovacs, A. (2023, August 3). The History of Soccer: Tracing the World’s Beautiful Game - Metro League . Metro League. https://www.metroleague.org/history-of-soccer_soc/ Lambrecht, E. (2021, September 21). How did American football develop - DailyHistory.org . Www.dailyhistory.org . https://www.dailyhistory.org/How_did_American_football_develop Olympedia. (2024). Olympedia – Rowing . Www.olympedia.org . https://www.olympedia.org/sports/ROW Sports History Network. (2024a, August 2). The History Of Sports Explained . Sports History Network. https://sportshistorynetwork.com/multiple-sports/history-of-sports-explained/ Sports History Network. (2024b, August 2). The History of the Olympic Games: From Ancient Greece to the Modern Era . Sports History Network. https://sportshistorynetwork.com/olympics/history-of-olympic-games-from-ancient-greece-to-modern-era/ SportsGeeks. (2023, July 26). The evolution of sports: From ancient times to modern-day.  SportsGeeks. https://sportsgeeks.net/the-evolution-of-sports-from-ancient-times-to-modern-day/

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Over time, culinary practices have changed, reflecting developments in technology, culture, and trade. How people eat and what they eat are largely shaped by culture and how food is viewed within a community. Early cooking practices were influenced by the need for survival, while modern practices allow for more creativity and innovation. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans introduced more refined methods such as baking, boiling, and fermenting, while modern civilizations have developed new methods and applications for cooking through technology. This paper will dive into the changes in food and culinary practices throughout time and how they shaped local communities and culture. Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, the basis of food was barley, wheat, and vegetables. These core foods built the foundation for the Egyptian diet. Meat was eaten on occasion, but was typically expensive and not affordable for the common person. The major meals consisted of bread and porridge made from wheat and barley. Because bread was so important, many different varieties were invented, often including different ingredients for flavor. Fruits and vegetables were another staple, adding protein to the diet with the limited access to meat. Lentils, beans, and peas added both fiber and protein to porridges and soups, while garden vegetables like onions, lettuce, cucumbers, garlic, and radishes were common (King, 2024). Other protein supplements included eggs and dairy products. This led to cheesemaking being a key culinary practice that was practiced by most to add additional foods to the daily diet. With regards to fishing, freshwater fish, like carp, catfish, Nile salmon, and eels, could be found in rivers and lakes (King, 2024). These fish would be smoked and dried to help preserve them from the hot climate. The Egyptians also ate a variety of sweets, including cakes and pastries that would typically be made using nuts, fruits, and other sweet syrups.   Popular drinks included beer, which was often brewed at home and consumed with meals. These beers typically had low alcohol content and were consumed throughout the entirety of the day. Different beer varieties were created through the addition of fruits or spices. Wines were also created using grapes, dates, and figs. These drinks were very common and popular in Egyptian culture, consumed daily with meals, at events and festivals, and when spending time with family or friends.   Very little has been discovered with relation to ancient Egyptian recipes, although artwork has helped researchers build diet models. Simple methods of preparation like soups, stews, and casseroles appear to have been the most popular (King, 2024). They also used culinary practices, including boiling, roasting, baking, and frying, to cook meats and other foods. Essential additions to the diet were spices and seasonings to provide flavors to the foods. These included herbs like dill, parsley, and thyme, along with nuts, vegetable oils, and animal fats. Kitchenware typically consisted of stone and clay to make pots and utensils, although what individuals had access to was largely dependent on class. People would typically eat together, seated on stools or the floor, eating from communal dishes or bowls. They would use clay cups and wooden utensils to eat, enjoying the accompaniment of family and friends.   Ancient Greece The geography of ancient Greece largely shaped its diet. Much of the terrain was mountainous, leading to limited land to grow crops on. Because of this, farmers typically built terraces on hillsides to reduce soil erosion and improve irrigation. They also practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility and used tools like plows and hoes to foster improved plant growth. With the limited amount of growable land, farming land ownership was a major point of contention. Smaller farmers would work their land while larger farmers would have additional help in the form of slaves or paid laborers. Key crops consisted of barley, wheat, olive trees, and gra pes. Each of these was able to grow well in the local environment and was instrumental to Greek cuisine. Barley and wheat were grown to make bread and porridge, which were what many ate for survival due to their low cost. Olive trees produced olives, which were used to create olive oil, a versatile product used in cooking, lighting lamps, religious rituals, and personal grooming (World History Edu, 2025). Grapes were grown to produce wine, which was a staple of Greek culture. Other popular foods included figs, apples, pears, and herbs like oregano, thyme, and mint.   In addition to crops, Greeks would consume livestock and their products to survive. Cattle were raised primarily for milk, and on occasion, would be consumed for their meat. Like ancient Egypt, cheesemaking was very important and provided additional foods that could be incorporated into diets. Chicken, pigs, and geese would be raised for their meat and eggs. Bees were also highly valued for their honey and beeswax, which could be used for candles, as sweeteners, and more. As a whole, the diet heavily relied on vegetables and dairy products. Meat was typically reserved for special occasions or sacrifices.    Ancient Rome The Ancient Roman diet was expanded compared to earlier periods. Much of this was because of improved trading routes with neighboring areas. The most notable trade route was the Silk Road connecting Rome to the east, bringing spices, silk, and other luxury goods to the heart of the Roman Empire (Ancient Societies, 2025). Another influential trade route was the Maritime Trade, which facilitated the transport of goods like olive oil, wine, and fish products to Rome (Ancient Societies, 2025). Through these trade routes, Romans were able to gain access to goods and foods that they would not have otherwise had access to, diversifying their diets and culinary practices.   Many of the core foods remained the same as earlier periods, including wheat, barley, vegetables, fruits, meats, and spices. Wheat and barley were mostly used to make breads, porridges, and cereals. Vegetables and fruits, including onions, garlic, grapes, apples, and figs, were very popular and often used in dishes either as sides or to provide improved flavor. Meat and fish were still usually only enjoyed on special occasions, but remained important for society. Spices were widely used to enhance flavors and change the monotony of a similar diet each day. Like earlier periods, wine and beer held important cultural significance, although there are many documents showcasing alcohol abuse. During festivals, events, and other celebrations, wine would be distributed for free or at a very low cost, leading to the often excessive intake of alcohol (Hanson, 2017).   Ancient Romans used a variety of cooking techniques to prepare the food they had available. Boiling was a popular technique to prepare grains and legumes, and is how porridges were made. Roasting meat over an open flame was the primary way of cooking meat and fish, adding spices to bring out flavors. Many desserts and pastries were cooked by baking, while dishes were often cooked by stewing in large pots, allowing flavors and spices to be added and mixed. Social gatherings often revolved around meals, and culinary traditions were integral to Roman culture (Ancient Societies, 2025).   Middle Ages The Middle Ages marked a period of diverse culinary practices as many societies and cultures were involved during this time period. From the Roman Empire’s conquests to the Silk Road trade routes, medieval cuisine encompassed a variety of flavors/ingredients sourced from various places around the world (Anastasiia, 2024). In all, many of the foods discussed in previous sections are the same, with vegetables and fruits playing a major role in society.   Culinary practices during the time reflected the values and culture of the time. Religious beliefs shaped dietary restrictions, which in turn impacted what foods could be consumed. Preservation methods like salting and smoking were crucial in preserving foods for the future since refrigerators were not around. Rituals often played an important role in dining practices and how food could be consumed. These meals were typically communal events that brought people together in an effort to promote unity and respect.   One significant advancement came in the form of how beer and wine were created. In many earlier periods, beer and wine were home-brewed and typically low in alcohol content. During the Middle Ages, monasteries became centers for brewing and winemaking. Here, the art of brewing became the work of monks, where they made several key discoveries, such as using hops as an ingredient (Hanson, 2017). Hops served as a flavor and preservative for beer, allowing it to be saved and stored for longer periods of time before turning sour. Most importantly, the process of distillation was outlined during this time. This allowed for the brewing and creation of even more types of alcoholic beverages and laid the foundation for future alcohol creation.   Renaissance The Renaissance was a time of rapid educational growth and the development of many discoveries. For most, bread remained the food of choice, ranging from white bread consumed by the upper classes to wheat bran eaten by the lower classes. Rice was consumed in some areas, while peaches and melons were introduced into other diets. Salads became popular during that time, differing in specific content based on what was available in that particular area. Meat, milk, and eggs remained popular, along with pork, fish, and even peacocks, having roles in their diet. In the Baltic and Mediterranean regions, people regularly ate fish, including sardines, cod, and tuna, and would consume porpoise and whale when caught.   Sugar was considered to be a spice and was predominantly used by the rich since it was very costly. With Christopher Columbus's successful sailing to America, a variety of new spices and foods were introduced. He brought back tomatoes, potatoes, chocolate, turkey, squash, coffee, and tea (Dattler, 2018). Many of these foods were new and transformed the diet and intake of people throughout Europe and the rest of the world. As trade continued, more foods and goods were shared with one another, adding to daily intakes. With the variety of new foods, a variety of cookbooks started getting written and published. These shared cooking methods and recipes for some of the new foods that were introduced, along with sharing how different cooking techniques can generate different flavors.   With the process of distillation being outlined during the Middle Ages, many developments were made during the Renaissance period. In particular, the creation of many popular types of alcohol was developed, including champagne, whiskey, gin, and rum. Champagne was created during the 17th century and was enjoyed and popular because of the bubbles within it. By the 16th century, whiskey was widely consumed throughout parts of Europe and was very popular in Ireland and Scotland. Gin was created using Juniper berries and was initially used for medicinal purposes, but it quickly grew into a popular French and English drink. Lastly, Rum was produced using molasses and became New England’s largest and most prosperous industry (Hanson, 2017).   Modern Age As time has gone on, vegetables, spices, meats, etc., have been used to create a wide variety of new foods. New types of cheeses, peanut butter, yogurts, and much more have been created, adding variation to diets that did not previously exist in past civilizations. Much of this development has been facilitated by the development of new cooking appliances. While the basics have largely stayed the same with regards to boiling, roasting, and baking being key cooking practices, today, people have a variety of new tools and technologies to cook. The development of the refrigerator by General Electric (GE) in 1927 transformed how food could be stored (Hardy, 2023). This decreased the rate of spoilage for many foods and allowed individuals and families to keep foods for longer periods of time. Another key development was the creation of the stove. Before the stove, people relied on open fires for cooking and heating, which could be dangerous and inefficient at cooking things uniformly. The first stoves were closed metal boxes that made cooking safer, fostered improved heat distribution, and increased fuel efficiency (Thermo History, 2025). In addition to improved cooking ability, stoves also served a key role in heating homes and keeping individuals warm when it was cold out. Before the stove, heating homes was a challenge and relied on fireplaces, but with the invention of the stove, entire rooms or even entire houses could be warmed. The invention of the stove led to many other cooking appliances, including the microwave, toaster oven, and many more. This has revolutionized how individuals are able to store, cook, and consume different foods.   With the rise of new appliances and technology, new innovative cooking techniques have been developed. One such example is sous vide cooking, which involves vacuum sealing foods in bags and cooking them at precise temperatures in a water bath. This is able to yield improved flavors of foods and increased cooking efficiency with regard to time and labor spent. Another new technique is molecular gastronomy, which connects science with traditional cooking. Examples include foam creation, where chefs can create foams with distinctive flavors and textures, and liquid nitrogen, enabling rapid freezing and texture changes of foods (Naudi, 2023). Another newer and innovative method includes the demand for plant-based foods. Using science, vegetables can be treated like proteins and grilled, seared, or roasted to give the appearance of meat. Additionally, advances in plant-based components have resulted in the invention of molecular substitutes like dairy-free cheeses and meat substitutes for plants, enabling the development of plant-based copies of traditional recipes (Naudi, 2023).   Conclusion As a whole, the evolution of culinary practices has reflected changes in trade, culture, and technology. From early diets of vegetables, fruits, and dairy to highly processed diets of today, food has changed in significant ways. The development of trade routes introduced new foods and goods into communities, adding to the spreading of cultures. Starting in the Middle Ages, new methods of distillation and preservation transformed how food and alcohol could be consumed. Modern times have ushered in a new era of culinary creativity, fueled by technological innovations such as refrigeration, stoves, and advanced cooking techniques like sous vide and molecular gastronomy. Ultimately, culinary practices have shaped communities, bringing people together through traditions and family that continues to evolve and exist today.   Sources Anastasiia. (2024, February 20). Medieval Food Facts: A Tasty History Dive . Knightstemplar.co . https://knightstemplar.co/medieval-food-facts-a-tasty-history-dive/#google_vignette Ancient Societies. (2025). Unearthing the Origins of Ancient Roman Cuisine . Ancient Societies. https://ancientsocieties.net/blog/archaeology/ancient-roman-food-origins/ Dattler, L. (2018). Eating and drinking during the Renaissance - Hektoen International . Hekint.org . https://hekint.org/2018/09/06/eating-and-drinking-during-the-renaissance/ Hanson, D. (2017, March 22). History of Alcohol and Drinking around the World . Www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org . https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/history-of-alcohol-and-drinking/ Hardy, J. (2023, October 11). Who Invented the Refrigerator? the History of the Refrigerator from Ancient Times to Today | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-refrigerator/ King, A. (2024, July 9). Food & Drink in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2494/food--drink-in-ancient-egypt/ Naudi, T. (2023, June 21). Master Modern Cooking Techniques: The New Generation- Tableo . Tableo. https://tableo.com/food-beverage-trends/modern-cooking-techniques/ Thermo History. (2025). The Invention of the Stove and its Impact on Daily Life . Thermo History. https://thermohistory.org/the-invention-of-the-stove-and-its-impact-on-daily-life/ World History Edu. (2025). Food and Agriculture in Ancient Greece - World History Edu . World History Edu. https://worldhistoryedu.com/food-and-agriculture-in-ancient-greece/

By Laura Rovedo An image of the entrance of the Sudan National Museum in March 2025. © Gamal ZainElabdeen Once a symbol of Sudan’s rich history, the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum now lies in ruins: its halls looted, artifacts stolen, and temple shelters damaged. As Sudan’s conflict between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) enters its third year, it has left nearly 150,000 dead, displaced 12 million people, and pushed 25 million into experiencing extreme hunger. The war that erupted in Sudan in April 2023 has devastated not only lives and cities but the foundations of Sudan’s cultural memory. The destruction of the country’s cultural heritage is not just collateral damage; it represents what many Sudanese scholars and officials describe as a targeted erasure of history. The Sudan National Museum and the University of Khartoum: assessing the damage Inaugurated in 1971, the Sudan National Museum included the two story museum, laboratories and the headquarters for the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM). Facing the artificial lake in the garden were also special shelter structures created to protect the temples of Buhen, Kumma, and Semna West. A point of pride, the museum housed more than 100,000 artifacts from various sites that were representative of the entire range of Sudanese history: from the Palaeolithic to the Kingdom of Kerma, from the kingdom of Kush to that of Meroe, from Medieval Makuria to the Islamic Period. Many of these objects were salvaged during the UNESCO Nubian campaign started in the 1960s, which rescued sites threatened by the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Before the war the museum had begun its first complete rehabilitation, with plans to reopen by mid-2023; the project was halted with the beginning of the conflict. Just a month into it, satellite images confirmed damage to the structures. By 2024, trucks were seen hauling crates of artifacts out: UNESCO called for compliance to the humanitarian law that forbids damaging, looting and using cultural propriety for military purposes. The extent of the damage became clear only when the SAF was able to re-establish control over Khartoum between April and May 2025. Photographs and videos showed extensive damage: the roofs covering the temple shelters were broken, monuments were used for target practice, human remains were damaged, glass cabinets destroyed and the collection looted. Only the temples and a few statues remain, including one of the Kushite king Taharqa (690 - 664 BC). UNESCO requested to compile lists of stolen objects; they also implemented emergency measures like the securing and digitalization of the collections of five archaeological museums, including the Kerma Museum and the Jebel Barkal Museum. The full extent of the damage is still unclear: a specialist team was sent to visit the site, collect information and document the situation in a full report, which is now still being completed. The destruction didn’t stop at cultural heritage. Sudan’s universities and their historical buildings, especially in Khartoum, have been severely damaged or rendered inaccessible. Despite the resilience of professors and students that were able to attend online lectures and exams, the lack of access to libraries, laboratories, research facilities and collections created huge obstacles. Entire research seasons and opportunities of fieldwork for archaeology students of antiquities were also lost. A conversation with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed and Prof. Francesca Iannarilli SASA had the opportunity to discuss the current situation in Sudan in a joint interview with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed, a PhD student and lecturer from the University of Khartoum currently residing in Italy as a Visiting Student thanks to the Erasmus+ project, and Francesca Iannarilli, Adjunct Professor of Egyptology at Ca' Foscari University of Venice and Field Director of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan at Jebel Barkal. Sara’s research focuses on a geoarchaeological study of Paleolithic lithic tools from the El Ga’ab Depression, west of Dongola, aiming to shed light on early human settlement patterns and the relationship between prehistoric communities and their environment. Professor Francesca Iannarilli and PhD candidate Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed. © Laura Rovedo. Q: What’s the state of the University of Khartoum? What are the difficulties and limits for Sudanese students during the war? Sara : At my university everything came to a halt at the beginning of the war, when most staff and students focused on leaving the capital to find safety in other countries or Sudanese states. I was unable to leave and I have been living in Omdurman, one of the areas that were most affected. It was almost impossible to concentrate on any academic activity. After a few months, the university resumed limited online activity through the use of WhatsApp, Google Meet, and a Moodle platform, starting with undergraduate level classes and exams. Despite the war, around 4,000-5,000 students successfully earned their bachelor degree, showing immense resilience and determination. As for postgraduate studies, the university remained inactive for a longer time, resuming activities only in November 2024. Although some resources could occasionally be found online, connectivity was a major issue: by July and August 2024, internet access was off across all of the country. Sara found a temporary academic refuge in Italy from February until September 2025. This opportunity was gained thanks to the efforts of Prof. Francesca Iannarilli. Together with the former Egyptology professor at Ca’ Foscari, Emanuele Ciampini, she has a long-standing involvement in excavations at Jebel Barkal (modern Karima, Sudan) where the Italian mission, active since the 1970s, has been investigating the royal district of ancient Napata, a major religious and ceremonial site of the Kingdom of Meroe and, previously, of Kush. Q: How did this collaboration begin? Are there future projects related to it? Professor Iannarilli: I found the call for applications and eventually the department was awarded the grant. The project officially started only one year ago, though it was originally planned to run from 2023 until 2026, a three-year period. Unfortunately, due to the situation in Sudan, the start was delayed. This year, Sara and Prof. Nuha Abdel Hafiz joined us. Next year, two more students are expected to join the exchange project. Since it supports outgoing mobility as well, I’m also supposed to return to the University of Khartoum, but if that’s not possible, we’re working on an alternative plan to continue teaching in Cairo, where a group of Sudanese students is currently based. This partnership allowed Sara to access opportunities for academic exchange, receive professional training, and engage with new knowledge and experiences in the field. Q: How did your exchange project in Italy help you with your research? Sara : Coming to Italy through this program gave me the opportunity to reconnect with university after two years. I was able to attend classes on Italian language and on the history of Venice. I visited cities around the country, and participated in training and workshops on physical anthropology, archaeozoology and archaeobotany. One of the most important experiences was the training at the LAMA laboratory [ the Laboratory for Analysis of the Ancient Materials of IUAV University Venice ]; after the destruction of the research facilities at my university, continuing the scientific analysis was impossible. Here, I was able to work again on materials, an experience that inspired major changes in research questions and methodology for my PhD project. I had the opportunity to present my work at conferences, and this allowed me to connect with archaeologists and other experts from Italy and around the world. I was nervous about giving my talks here, but over time I gained more confidence. I was also able to present on topics I’ve never explored before, such as giving a talk about the state of the buildings of the University of Khartoum during a conference in Turin. I also had the chance to assist the mission team in their work on the archival material that was held in the storage rooms of the MVOEM [ Museo del Vicino Oriente, Egitto e Mediterraneo ] Sapienza University in Rome. They’ve been collecting and digitizing maps, drawing, photos and other documents testifying the history of the university’s excavations in Sudan since 1973. Socially and personally, this experience has been equally important. I found a supportive and diverse community in my residence and at university, with peers from all countries, including other students from Sudan; it helped me feel at home again. Q: You mentioned the Jebel Barkal Archives Project. What is it and why is it so important for Sudan’s heritage? Sara: With the war, entire research seasons’ finds were lost. In Sudan, I worked with eight archaeological missions across different sites in the country, but this was the first time I joined a project specifically targeted to the digitization of archival material. It made me understand how the history of archaeology itself evolved and how documenting earlier research can offer new insights. At my department there was a large collection of material that we brought back from excavations, including human remains, but no one had worked on it yet, and it’s now completely gone. The only thing we still have is some documentation, mostly photographs. I really hope the site director will consider launching a similar project in the future, so we can work on what we have left. Q: What can be done to preserve the heritage and what is the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan doing right now? Sara: Once the war ends, it’s crucial that the missions and universities resume fieldwork. Our department is already working on a new plan to rebuild its capacity, creating new museums and reestablishing laboratories. We are actively seeking collaborations and funding from international universities to support the recovery process. We also hope to strengthen our relationship with all Sudanese museums, expanding cooperation and launching projects to preserve our heritage. Professor Iannarilli: Our last field excavation was in 2022. Since we cannot currently work in Sudan, staying connected to the NCAM and the Sudanese universities is the only way to continue collaborating and planning for the future. We participate in UNESCO meetings, and we’re working to bring together directors of other international archaeological missions in Sudan to discuss the situation and coordinate the next steps. It’s essential to keep international attention on Sudan alive. Another important effort is the Jebel Barkal Archives project. We hope that one day this material can be included in online and in-presence exhibitions in Italy and in Sudan, or be used to support field training activities for students. The idea is not only to raise awareness but also to generate financial support. We sadly are not supported by any funding at the moment, neither from the Ministry nor from the University, and are struggling; but we’re still trying our best to send small amounts when possible or organize small fundraising occasions to support humanitarian help and ongoing restoration activities in Karima. We also participate in solidarity initiatives and educational projects: for example, I recently contributed to a small children’s book project by SelkInk that features letters from children and stories from Sudan . Q: What is your wish for Sudan’s future? What do you miss the most? Sara: What I miss most is working with students and colleagues on the field; they taught me so much. I remember laughing and sharing stories while drinking tea and coffee after the day’s work had finished. I also miss my department, the energy of being at university and my friends. I hope we’ll be able to return and start again soon. Professor Iannarilli: I miss simple things: eating ta'ameya , sitting for a coffee prepared by a street vendor, looking at the sunset from the top of the mountain. I deeply miss working on the field at Jebel Barkal. I miss Karima and the many friends and colleagues we work with. Sadly, we can’t reach some of them because they don’t use messaging apps. Khalid’s house became our home during the missions: we hope to return one day, resume the work and share beautiful memories with the community of the town. Surprisingly, I also miss Khartoum. For years, it had been just a transit point for us. But I realize only now that I can’t go back that I actually grew attached to it. One place that I’ll miss is the Acropole Hotel . It’s luckily still standing, but it was looted and partially destroyed, and the family fled back to Greece. It’s unlikely they will ever reopen it , but it was a gathering point for generations of archaeologists. I miss that Khartoum, the one that is gone. Another Khartoum will rise, but it will be just different. We both hope for freedom and peace for Sudan, and for a chance to return. We hope that families can be reunited, and that the people that were forced to leave (like professor Nuha, who now temporarily resides in Cairo) can come back and rebuild their life at home. And I hope that us archaeologists and academics can still work together again. Conclusions and how you can help The recent events in Khartoum sparked a renewed sense of hope across Sudan. While the situation remains extremely fragile, it marks a significant shift. Damage to cultural heritage is still in an assessment phase, but universities have just recently started to reopen. The news has been welcomed with relief and joy by Sudanese professors and students, including Sara, who have spent more than two years in fear and uncertainty. Conflict always leaves cultural and academic institutions vulnerable. But heritage is more than objects and monuments: it also represents knowledge, memory and community, and the attack on it often leaves longlasting cultural and generational effects on people and places. There are several meaningful ways to support Sudan and its academic and heritage sectors in this recovery phase: Keep your eyes on Sudan ! Follow the news and share them to raise awareness; Donate to local and international organizations that are providing humanitarian relief; Share resources and expertise with displaced scholars and students around you if possible; Keep updated on UNESCO and NCAM’s efforts to preserve and protect cultural heritage, and learn about Sudan’s fascinating and long history; Follow and help fund archaeological missions, including the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan at Jebel Barkal (on Instagram: @jebelbarkal_italian_mission and on Facebook: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Sudan - Jebel Barkal ) to help support their projects, at home and on the field; Follow, support, volunteer and donate to SASA to help Save Ancient Studies and protect the future of studies and projects in history and archaeology! Sources Ahmed, Kaamil (2025, March 31), New images reveal extent of looting at Sudan’s national museum as rooms stripped of treasures , The Guardian. Booty, Natasha & Chothia, Farouk (2025, July 4), Sudan war: A simple guide to what is happening , BBC. Center for Preventive Action (2025, April 15), Civil War in Sudan , Global Conflict Tracker. Copnall, James (2025, April 25), From prized artworks to bullet shells: how war devastated Sudan's museums , BBC. Egyptology at Ca’ Foscari University , Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan - Jebel Barkal. Hussain, Abdallah (2025, August 3), Khartoum universities reopen as students defy war , PressTV. Modern Sudan Collective, Sudan National Museum . Morgan, Hiba (2025, April 29), Sudan’s national museum ransacked in war, experts decry loss of artefacts and cultural identity , Al Jazeera English. Pancin, Federica (2025, April 15), Il Sudan National Museum di Khartoum a due anni dallo scoppio della guerra , Djed Medu - Blog di Egittologia. Rilly, Claude (2013), The Sudan National Museum in Khartoum. An Illustrated Guide for Visitors , SFDAS. Scotellaro, Federica (2025, May 21), Interview with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed, PhD student University of Khartoum, Erasmus+ Visiting student Ca’ Foscari , cafoscariNEWS. Scotellaro, Federica (2025, May 22), Protecting Cultural Heritage During Armed Conflict: The Experiences of Two Visiting Scholars from Sudan to Venice Through the Erasmus+ ICM Project , cafoscariNEWS. Sudan National Museum website . TRT Global (2025, June 15), Sudan orders universities to reopen in capital Khartoum . UNESCO (2024, September 12), Sudan: UNESCO raises the alarm on reports of illicit trafficking of cultural heritage . UNESCO (2025, April 16), Sudan: UNESCO steps up its actions as the conflict enters its third year .

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Military weaponry and strategies have experienced vast transformations throughout history. Many of these developments were shaped by technological advancements, global wars and politics, and the pursuit of advancement. From early hand-to-hand and close-quartered fighting of early centuries to the drone strikes, nuclear weaponry, and cyber warfare of today, the ways wars are fought have significantly changed. These changes are important to study as they have each made their unique mark on the history of the world. This paper will dive into the evolution of strategies and warfare throughout the ages. Ancient Egypt In ancient times, military strategies were centrally focused on large-scale infantry formations and direct combat with opposing forces. Much of the early Egyptian warfare was internal, requiring a strong leader and military force to keep the country together in spite of civil unrest. As Ancient Egypt grew in size, regular wars were fought with surrounding nations in efforts to grow their kingdom and gain increased power, control, and resources. During the Old Kingdom, the military was a largely makeshift force of men from different monarchs conscripted into fighting. The soldiers fought for the king and their country, but they were not a united Egyptian army fighting for a common goal (Mark, 2016). As monarchs gained and lost power, many would become greedy, building statues for themselves rather than the king, and use their soldiers to fight for the crown. This went on for several hundred years, until Amenemhat I took power and created Egypt’s first standing army. This took power from the monarchs and created a more centralized system of control. The Old Kingdom's primary weapons included maces, daggers, and spears. As time went on, bows and arrows and shields were added, changing the way battles were waged. Many of these weapons were rudimentary, and the soldiers were inexperienced. As the old kingdom turned into the middle kingdom period, military advancements were made in the form of copper axes, swords, and bronze spears. These were paired with body armor and much more organization and training for soldiers. The army was better organized with a minister of war and a commander in chief of the army, and these professional troops were highly trained (Mark, 2016). As military tactics became more advanced and soldier training more developed, distinct divisions were developed, including scouts, light infantry, heavy infantry, and cavalry. Each of these groups served a unique role in warfare, allowing for more complex battle plans and tactics. The addition of chariot fighting added even more unique soldiers to the Egyptian army, allowing them to build their kingdom and conquer more lands. In addition to the army, the Egyptian’s developed a navy that both protected Egypt from foreign invaders and served as a mode of transporting soldiers for battle. The latter was the primary function of the navy, quickly transporting soldiers to different areas to jump into battle. The true value of the Egyptian navy was intimidation of potential invaders and the transport of land troops quickly (Mark, 2016). Nearly no documented fighting took place on water by the ships, and instead was between the soldiers that occupied the ships. This meant the early boats were very basic without sophisticated or established weaponry and were used more as a show of power than actual military force. The fall of the Ancient Egyptian kingdom came as a result of inefficient weaponry and civil upheaval. Many turned to iron weapons, which were more expensive without any significant advantage in warfare. The Persians defeated the Egyptian army, followed by Alexander the Great, and then it continued to bounce between rulers until becoming an established country again many years later. Ancient Greece   In Ancient Greece, war was viewed as a necessary evil, with the rewards of war outweighing the cost of materials or lives. Early Greek wars involved small-scale skirmishes between neighboring city-states, where militias were under the control of private individuals. These militias were made up of part-time soldiers who often had rudimentary weapons. As time went on, warfare shifted into larger, organized campaigns involving complex partnerships and alliances. The pillar of the Greek army was the hoplite, a soldier who carried a long spear, a short sword, a bronze shield, and armor if able to afford it. Other warriors, called peltasts, would be armed with short javelins and light armor. As time moved on, lighter troops such as archers and javelin throwers were introduced, challenging the dominance of hoplites and allowing for greater tactical flexibility. Cavalry remained limited due to Greece’s terrain, but became more prominent with future innovations. Each of these roles was unique and instrumental in its own unique way to the success of military outcomes. City-states, including Athens, Corinth, and Rhodes, created fleets of warships that would foster lucrative trading relationships and allow for troops to be moved to foreign areas and establish new colonies (Cartwright, 2018). The most notable ship was called the trireme, a light, fast ship designed for ramming enemy vessels. These ships were very expensive to make and had no spare room, so they had to be docked every night so the crew could sleep. Naval strategies focused on maneuverability, utilizing formations like the periplous and diekplous to outflank or break enemy lines.   Battle strategies relied heavily on religion, planning, sieges, and more. Before the first act of fighting would take place, rituals were undergone to determine the will of the gods. Consults with Apollo and animal sacrifices were crucial to determine if campaigns would be successful. When these rituals were complete, fighting would commence. Land fighting was often done using the formation of the phalanx, where every man protected both themselves and his neighbor with the large shield they carried. These units would move in unison, reducing any one individual from being overly exposed to the enemy. As cities began to be more developed, fighting moved away from open fields and more towards siege warfare. As cities built walls, military towers, moats, and more defenses, attacking troops had to become more advanced as well. Attackers developed siege towers, artillery, and even flamethrowers. Even with these advancements, the primary objective of a siege was to starve those in the city and force a surrender. As battles were fought and wars won, the victors would claim the spoils of war. They would collect any available silver, gold, weaponry, armor, etc. that held any value, dedicating certain amounts to the gods and keeping the rest for personal gain.   Roman Empire The Roman Empire remains one of the most well-known and respected empires of history. Their military power was instrumental in their expansion and creation, from their advancements in weaponry to complex training and military strategies. The Romans relied on complex formations and military structures, utilizing the manipular system of many smaller, more mobile units called maniples, consisting of 120 men, divided into two centuries of 60 men each (history tools, 2024). As the empire’s enemies became more advanced, the army’s organization became even more sophisticated, with reforms from Gaius Marius professionalizing the military and creating standardized training and equipment. With the development of large legions of 5,000 men, each further subdivided into 10 cohorts, divided into 6 centuries, divided into 10 conteubernium. This hierarchical structure fostered clear lines of communication where each unit had the ability to operate independently and efficiently on the battlefield. Individual training was also much more advanced during this period. All soldiers would undergo training in marching, formations, the use of swords, javelins, shields, setting up and breaking down camp, constructing makeshift bridges and roads, etc. This training instilled collective discipline, endurance, and identity, all of which were essential for maintaining cohesion in the face of battle (history tools, 2024). The Romans developed several new military formations that made their military prowess unlike any seen before. One of the most effective was called the testudo formation and involved soldiers interlocking their shields to create a nearly impenetrable wall. This formation was often used during sieges, allowing the soldiers to get to the city walls safely. Another prominent innovation was the triple line formation, which consisted of three lines of soldiers with the most seasoned troops at the back of the line and less-seasoned fighters at the front. This formation allowed for a large degree of flexibility on the battlefield, where gaps would be filled by more experienced soldiers, preventing any critical openings from forming. A third technique was the wedge formation, where soldiers would form a triangular shape and launch a concentrated attack at a weak point in an enemy’s line. As the wedge broke through the enemy line, the enemy troops would be cut off into smaller groupings, allowing the Romans to create chaos on the battlefield. Roman tactics heavily relied on the integration of combined arms—infantry, cavalry, and artillery—paired with advanced engineering skills. The army's use of artillery like ballistae would weaken enemy defenses, while cavalry provided critical reconnaissance and flanking maneuvers. The engineering of rapid bridges, siege engines, fortifications, and more allowed for unmatched mobility on the battlefield. The impacts of the Roman military have been far-reaching. Their tactics, training, formations, etc., have served as a model for future countries and militaries to build upon.   Middle Ages Medieval military strategies consisted of a variety of different factors, with the presence of empires, city-states, and other religious orders holding power. Battles would range from small skirmishes and raids to full sieges of castles and other fortified cities. The art of sieges improved during this time, with tools like battering rams and catapults having enhanced engineering to combat the defensive advantage that a fortified city or castle provided (Cohen, 2019). Many of these battles were similar to those of earlier periods, with general weaponry and tactics staying largely the same. The major developments were in the weapons themselves, with new siege weaponry and advanced swords, shields, and armor being created, yielding more durable troops.   One of the most well-known soldiers of this time was the European knight, clad in a full set of armor with swords, shields, and other weaponry. Knights were often connected with royalty, either being born into nobility or being bestowed a knighthood by the rulers of the country. During this time, horses, weapons, and armor were costly. With knights typically owning all three, it was oftentimes necessary for a knight to be well-connected in society, being both a skilled warrior but also one intertwined with the elaborate social structures. Other troops consisted of light cavalry and infantry. Light cavalry often were used as scouts or flankers, and were lighter-armored soldiers, while infantry consisted of the general soldier who may wield a variety of weaponry. The advancement of the medieval bow was a powerful new type of ranged weaponry that required many years of training to master. This bow differed from the crossbow and others in that it possessed a greater range of distances at which it could be fired. This allowed for more versatility on the battlefield, with more developed weaponry serving as a hallmark of this period of time.   Renaissance The Renaissance period was a time of great political, social, religious, economic, cultural, and military growth. The development of new technologies yielded new weaponry and radicalized how wars were fought. The landscape of Europe drove forward many wars, with many areas fighting one another and seeking power and gold. As a whole, this period drifted away from the feudal warfare of the Middle Ages that had relied on poorly trained soldiers. Instead, it focused on innovation, incorporating more coordinated and advanced military strategies and tactics. Army personnel became more diverse, including pikemen, larger numbers of cavalry, and cannons. The development of firearms and later the wheel-lock pistol replaced bows, transitioning the way battles were fought. These firearms utilized a cock and a trigger, the cock having a hole in it to hold a match, so when the trigger was pulled, the match would cause the powder to ignite and discharge the metal bullet (Military History, 2022). While many of these early firearms had limited range, they were instrumental on the battlefield, and infantry and cavalry would regularly carry multiple into battle with them.   Early Renaissance period armies were also well-trained and full of professional soldiers. These armies typically were composed of hired troops who fought for financial incentives. This could cause problems at times, with soldiers sometimes going on strike or electing to fight for the opposing side for more money. This lack of loyalty in army forces was something prevalent in Renaissance fighting (Military History, 2022). As time went on and individual countries began to become more developed, the rise of strong centralized monarchies allowed for the creation of more professional, standing armies.   The battlefield also experienced many new transformations. With the development of cannons and other artillery, battles could be won or lost based on which side had more artillery weaponry, as opposed to the skill of the fighters. Superior weapons could destroy enemy lines, break fortifications, and cripple infrastructure (Military History, 2022). Additionally, the use of field fortifications became increasingly important. Armies learned to integrate defensive structures into their battle plans, protecting important artillery and personnel. Heavy cavalry experienced a surge in numbers as technical innovations made fighting on horseback more of an advantage. Overall, technological advancements and discoveries drove the advancement of nearly all aspects of the Renaissance period. Post-Renaissance to Modern Age As time progressed, military strategies continued to evolve, largely due to the unprecedented rate at which new military technology and weapons were created. Additionally, the way intelligence is gathered has widely changed from early scouts to technology that is able to record and scan people, buildings, and entire regions. The collection of intelligence has allowed military leaders to assess threats, properly allocate resources, and improve tactical effectiveness, transforming modern warfare (Total Military Insight, 2024). The use of satellites, drones, and more has allowed for the stealthy gathering of information so as not to alert potential enemies. These advancements allow for real-time data analysis so that leaders are able to make decisions that lead to the highest odds of victory. Additional factors, including geography and alliances, have shaped changes in military strategies. As countries have been built up with improved infrastructure, geography has changed with new towns, cities, and more being built up all around the globe in areas that may have previously been barren or covered in trees. These changes have altered how wars are fought. In earlier periods, tree cover could be used for guerrilla warfare; however, if all of the trees in an area are cut down and a town or city is built, then fighting would have to take place in and around the built environment. The ever-changing nature of alliances is also a major factor that has changed throughout time. With new countries being established that did not exist during earlier times, the nature of alliances has widely changed. These alliances are relied upon during times of war to provide military support. Additionally, they are important for day-to-day trading, communication, and more that allow individual countries to obtain all necessary items, including food, technology, natural resources, etc., that are needed to survive and thrive. The development of more specialized firearms, including improved rifles, handguns, snipers, shotguns, and others, has transformed how wars and battles are fought. Soldiers no longer carry swords, shields, axes, and spears, having increased maneuverability and lethality with their high-powered weaponry. Additionally, soldiers no longer march long distances to battle or ride horses to outflank opponents, and instead travel by military buses and sit inside tanks. The advancement of bombing has shifted early cannon use into large bombs dropped from planes from above. This allows for much more flexibility in aiming for a target as a plane can fly above virtually anything dropping bombs below it, whereas a cannon has to be moved and specially aimed at an intended target. The development of atomic bombs and more nuclear weaponry of today has even further changed how wars are discussed and fought. The threat of dropping a nuclear bomb can now be enough to stop a war before it even starts. The act of killing in war is now much less personal in many cases than it once was. In the past, soldiers had to physically kill one another, through stabbing with a spear or axe, or cutting with a sword. Today, pilots are able to drop bombs at the click of a button without having to physically confront an opposing force. The rise of cell phones, the internet, and social media has also radically changed how communication, and in turn, wars are started and how they progress. Cyber warfare has created an entirely new battlefield, where digital systems can be hacked by individuals all across the globe. Cyberattacks are able to target financial systems, power grids, and communication networks, causing widespread panic, all without firing a single shot (McCarthy, 2024). The rise of artificial intelligence has also changed how information is gathered and processed. With AI being able to analyze large amounts of data quickly, patterns and insights may be provided that can influence the outcome of a battle or war. The use of artificial intelligence can also help on the battlefield, where targeting software may help pilots hit specific targets. These innovations are reshaping the battlefield, enhancing the precision and efficiency with which military weapons and personnel are able to operate. As we move into the future, more advancements and innovations are sure to come, and with that, new changes to the way military strategies are developed and how wars are fought are sure to follow. Conclusion Both military strategies and warfare have changed drastically over time, reflecting advancements in technology and shifts in political, economic, and social structures. From early open field, direct fighting with swords, shields, and spears, to the fighting of today with bombs, planes, machine guns, tanks, and more, the nature in which soldiers operate is very different. This reflects the broader changes throughout society, where infrastructure, economic policies, alliances, political systems, and more have grown and advanced. As technology continues to evolve, future military strategies are likely to be centered around artificial intelligence and cyber warfare. This will require more advanced and secure networks, with cybersecurity a matter of growing importance. As the world is sure to face future conflicts, leaders of the world will be able to draw on history and make decisions that both minimize destruction and promote global peace and security.   Sources Cartwright, M. (2018, March 27). Ancient Greek Warfare . World History Encyclopedia; World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Warfare/ Cohen, E. (2019). Strategy - Medieval strategy. In Encyclopædia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/topic/strategy-military/Medieval-strategy history tools. (2024, May 25). The Art of War: A Historian‘s Perspective on Roman Military Tactics - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-art-of-war-a-historians-perspective-on-roman-military-tactics#google_vignette Mark, J. (2016, October 3). Ancient Egyptian Warfare . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Warfare/ McCarthy, B. (2024, September 12). The Impact of Technology on Modern Warfare . MilitaryConflict -. https://www.militaryconflict.org/the-impact-of-technology-on-modern-warfare/ Military History (Ed.). (2022, March 7). Renaissance warfare: a military revolution | The Past . The-Past.com . https://the-past.com/feature/renaissance-warfare-a-military-revolution/ Total Military Insight. (2024, June 16). The Evolution of Military Strategy: From Ancient Tactics to Modern Warfare - Total Military Insight . The Insurance Universe. https://totalmilitaryinsight.com/evolution-of-military-strategy/#The_Shift_from_Conventional_to_Asymmetric_Warfare

Since April archaeologists across the U.S. learned that they might have to end work worth decades of research–not because of a dead end but because they can no longer afford to look at it. Rather than promote federal funding of archaeology and related fields, the U.S. government has instead recently decided to cut archaeology funds. Since April, at least 16 grants have been cancelled at the National Science Foundation (NSF), the primary funder of archaeology in the U.S., which amounts to nearly $2 million in unpaid funds for archaeology and palaeopathology research and training. Similar funding cuts for other agencies, including the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Institute for Museum and Library Services, are currently affecting countless researchers, museums and other institutions. According to the article ‘Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil the field’s future’ in Science magazine (2025), Christina Warinner, an anthropologist at Harvard University and president of the International Society for Biomolecular Archaeology, those funding cuts mean that archaeology in the U.S. will lose its prominence among global leaders, as researchers now have to decide between terminating their work, turning to private investors, or moving to countries ready to fund their project s.° 1 Private funding can only substitute a small portion of the federal funding shortages and often has different aims. A study on federal research funding cuts, patents and entrepreneurship using data from the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, the ITRIS UMETRICS program and the Federal Audit Clearinghouse shows that while federal funding aims at keeping researchers in academia, private funding is more often patented and appropriated by the private sector.° 2  It can prove impossible to renew halted or terminated archaeology projects since sites cannot be maintained while half-excavated without succumbing to environmental wear. Ari Caramanica, an archaeologist at Vanderbilt University, claims in the article ‘Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil the field´s future,’ that her research into past human responses to flooding in northern Peru would have contributed to ‘innovative thinking’ to urgent climate issues had it not been prematurely halted.° 3  Caramanica lost a $145,000 NEH grant to a project eventually inevitably helpful as climate change will continue to intensify flooding in the U.S. Moreover, cutting funds affects the future of history. Apart from postgraduate students being unable to progress their careers, professionals too have to face shortages as already approved research funds get rescinded. An anonymous source mentions that “because the current administration overturned an existing loan to a client” which at the moment cannot be replaced with private funding they had to cut 60% of their field stuff on a few days notice. Though the affected field technicians, as part-timers, are not officially “fired”, they nonetheless lost guaranteed income meaning that they are “temporarily out of work directly because of a Trump Admin decision”.° 4  Universities may as well soon decide to cut either unprofitable modules or degrees, or merge several degrees together. This is not just a problem in the U.S. For instance, while Leiden University is still debating those drastic measures, Utrecht University will have downsized 10% of its Humanities budget by 2027.° 5   Downsizing the budget of federal funding in archaeology and related fields risks the extinction of ancient studies. The Netherlands has already begun to cut unprofitable degrees and the halting of research impedes finding solutions to urgent crises, including climate change. Such crises affect us all. Although the destruction of knowledge rarely makes headlines, its impact lasts for centuries. 1 Taylor Mitchell Brown, `Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil field’s future´, in Science  magazine (2025). AAAS Articles DO Group . [online] doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.zk4y23m  [accessed August 15, 2025]. 2  Linda Gorman, ` Are Federal and Private Research Funding Substitutes?´, in NBER, The Digest (2021).    [online] Available at: https://www.nber.org/digest/202103/are-federal-and-private-research-funding-substitutes  [accessed August 15, 2025]. 3 Brown, `Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil field’s future´. 4  “ I can say is that with the Project I'm working on literally Monday we found out we had to cut 60% of our field staff (~20ish people?) because the current administration overturned an existing loan to the client. We're gonna be fumbling along with a single crew until a possible full stand down in the autumn unless the client can find private funding. The field techs were mostly part timers, so they're not like "fired", they just dont have the guaranteed income from this job that some of them have had since like 2022 and will have to either wait for another project or jump elsewhere/with another office. Point is- People are now at least temporarily out of work DIRECTLY because of a Trump Admin decision." 5  Beatrice Scali, `These major Dutch universities are axing multiple humanities programs´, in Dutch Review (2024). [online] DutchReview. Available at: https://dutchreview.com/news/dutch-universities-to-cut-humanities-programs/  [Accessed August 15, 2025].

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout time, as technology, education, culture, etc. have changed, so too have economic practices. From early bartering systems to the complex global economies of today, each system has served its role in the society in which it existed. This paper will dive into the progression of economic practices from early trade patterns to the rise of capitalism and global trade, and finally discuss the modern age of digital transactions.   Ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptian economy was heavily reliant on trade, where goods and services could be swapped for food and shelter. Ancient Egypt was a country full of natural resources, yet it was not self-sufficient and relied on trade for necessary goods and luxuries (Mark, 2017). To set up a standardized system, goods and services were valued based on a unit called the deben. While this was not an actual coin or currency, it helped create a system where goods and services could be appropriately valued. This prevented a system where everyone sold the same product for a vastly different price.   With regard to trade partners, Mesopotamia was an early trade partner and influenced the development of Egyptian art, religion, and culture (Mark, 2017). Many of the materials that were used as staples of Egyptian culture were obtained through trade. As time went on, more trade partners played a role in Egyptian society, including Libya, Nubia, and Levant. These partners brought precious metals and gems that were not otherwise available in Egypt, and were mostly sought after by nobles and royalty. They also provided many valuable resources, including wood and ivory that were used in creating personal goods and products. As a whole, the kinds of goods that were traded varied largely by region, and because of this, set trading pathways were developed, building physical connections between other countries and territories.   Ancient Greece Ancient Greece had a diverse economy, comprised of various sections including agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship. Agriculture served as the backbone of the Greek economy, trade connected them with the rest of the discovered world, and craftsmanship enhanced the economy and culture of the area (AncientSocieties Team, 2025). Crops and livestock made up a core piece of the Greek economy, with crops like barley, wheat, olives, and grapes being used to generate products like wine and olive oil, which could be traded or sold. Livestock like sheep, cows, and goats were valued for their wool, milk, and meat. These goods could then be sold on the Maritime trade route or in local marketplaces, exchanging excess crops, milk, wool, or eggs for other goods and services.   The introduction of established coins helped revolutionize the economy, placing set values on each coin. The most common material that was used to make the coins was silver, which was then used to facilitate trade patterns. Merchants often held significant power over trading patterns and drove the buying and selling of specific goods. These merchants would often bring back new customs, art, philosophies, and other unique or luxury items. Many artists would travel with merchants, making their way to Greece and adding their ideas to its culture, leading to the construction of well-known structures such as the Parthenon (AncientSocieties Team, 2025). All of these factors added to the rich landscape that made up the Greek economic system and paved the way for future generations.   Ancient Rome The Roman Empire left a huge mark on history due to the size and power of the empire, and as a result of this, its trade power was very influential. The Romans developed extensive road networks and harnessed the Mediterranean Sea, enabling them to connect with distant regions and facilitate the movement of goods (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). The Empire traded and bought commodities like pottery, glass, wine, olive oil, and many others. Access to public services was another distinct feature of Roman life, contributing to the quality of life, including public baths and established water distribution systems (Roman Empire Staff, 2025a).   Roman engineers significantly enhanced the ability for trade to take place. They excelled in building roads that were not only straight and durable but also widespread (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). This allowed for trade throughout the empire as well as with surrounding areas, fostering an improved network of merchants and travelers. Paired with the power of the Roman navy protecting access to the Mediterranean Sea, the Roman trading system was very strong and unlike any economic system that had previously existed. Notable imports included Spain’s valuable metals like silver, Egypt and North Africa’s crops, Britain’s tin and iron, and Italy’s wine (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b).   The Roman Empire relied on taxes to ensure funding for its major activities, including building and maintaining roads, developing infrastructure, and supporting the building of an army. While essential, taxes were often a heavy burden on traders and merchants, sometimes limiting the supply of certain goods or services. Notable taxes included the land tax, poll tax, and customs duties tax. The land tax was applied to farmable land, the poll tax was the annual tax amount that an individual might have to pay based on their income, while the customs duties tax was levied against goods entering cities like Rome (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). Additional income to the government came from newly conquered territories, which were often required to pay tributes of precious metals, gems, or soldiers for military service.   Middle Ages The Middle Ages were heavily influenced by the feudal system, where lords owned land and peasants worked that land in exchange for food and shelter. This relationship drove the economy as most individuals were largely reliant on the lords of the land they worked on. Additionally, the further growth of towns and the expansion of trade routes, such as those along the Mediterranean Sea, led to the development of a more sophisticated economy and the emergence of long-distance trade (Biernat, 2023). With the established class divides, life was very different for a lord compared to a peasant. The average day for a peasant involved large amounts of physical labor, either tending to livestock, working in the fields, or completing household chores. At the end of a workday, most people would return home for dinner, spend time with one another, and participate in events before going to sleep early to get rest for the next workday. On the other hand, lords were not working the fields daily and had time to attend shows or plays. The monetary system of the Middle Ages was largely built upon the use of coins. Coins were regularly made of gold, silver, or copper and held specific values that could be exchanged for other goods or services (Biernat, 2023). Different regions used different types of coins and currency methods, making standardization impossible and confusing. Even with these differences, currency was important in fostering the buying and selling of goods between people and places.   Renaissance The Renaissance was a period of significant growth and development, namely the rise of capitalism. The rise of the middle class was witnessed during this time, leading to an increase in trade and travel, as well as the spread of new ideas (Green, 2024). This drove an increase in the desire for education, placing an emphasis on the arts, scientific discoveries, and new inventions. Renaissance economics focused on production based on human creativity, emphasizing education, science, incentives, and entrepreneurship (Green, 2024). The shift to a capitalist economic system drove significant change to the culture and environment of the world. This changed how individuals operated within the economic system, eliminating the lord-servant system and creating one where people can operate independently within it. Trade was another major piece of the economy of the Renaissance. Wealth accrued from exploration, such as the influx of gold and silver from the Americas, accelerated the economic growth of Europe. This was connected with the other major economic system during this period, mercantilism. This revolved around the idea that the nation’s wealth and power were best when exports were high and imports were low. This helped drive the expansion of global trade patterns and added significantly to the sharing of goods, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and more around the globe.   Modern Age As time continued and more of the world was discovered and settled, global trade patterns continued to evolve and develop. The discovery and settling of the Americas established new countries and new trade partners. As a result of the rise of economies within new countries, many countries experienced a decrease in their wealth and power (Stearns, 2020). Much of this was rooted in the new independence of countries like the United States, and no longer paying large sums of money through taxes to England, keeping that money for their own use once independent. This is what drove much of the economic turmoil throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, as kingdoms and empires were broken up, giving way to the newly won independence.   Additionally, other economists began developing their principles, including Adam Smith, proposing the idea of an ‘invisible hand.’ This suggested that individuals will pursue things that benefit them as opposed to society at large. This has laid the foundation for many countries today, emphasizing the benefits of free markets with limited governmental intervention (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). Another important political and economic concept that arose during this time was Karl Marx’s manifesto outlining communism. This economic system emphasized everyone being equal with all in the society pooling and sharing resources evenly.   Today, many countries employ different economic systems. Some of the most prevalent are the market economy and the mixed economy. The market economy operates on principles of supply and demand, where individuals and businesses make their own decisions based on their interests (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). Mixed economies involve government involvement to regulate the market and provide goods and services like welfare. This system aims to have an efficient economy while simultaneously ensuring that other social needs and objectives are met.   The rise of centralized banking systems has further transformed how individuals interact with and store their money. With these systems, credit and debit were formed, interest rates and loans were established and standardized, and other specialty accounts have been created. National centralized banks drastically impact the world, regulating interest rates, money supply, and financial regulations and policies.   Modern day, international trade and global markets continue to be instrumental to the success of individual countries. These relationships are often very complex and constantly changing based on partnerships, wars, and other global political, social, or economic issues. These trade patterns allow countries to specialize in producing goods where they have a comparative advantage, leading to more efficient resource allocation and increased global output (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). This helps promote global cooperation where no one country can produce everything needed and relies on others, strengthening partnerships and enhancing the global economy.   Conclusion Evaluating the change in economic practices from early bartering systems to the connected global market that exists today reflects the many new resources, technologies, and ideas that have been developed throughout history. While early civilizations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome had simpler frameworks, they laid the foundations for trade, building infrastructure to facilitate patterns of connection. Later periods, like the Middle Ages and Renaissance, built upon earlier periods and paved the way for capitalism, exploration, and individualism. The rise of centralized banking systems and technology during the modern age transformed the way people engaged in economic markets. Today’s global trade patterns, supported by digital transactions and international cooperation, highlight the dynamic and interconnected nature of the world economy. As technology continues to develop and international relations are ever-changing, economic systems and networks will change alongside it, shaping how societies interact with each other and the greater world. Sources AccountingInsights Team. (2024, August 20). Modern Economic Principles and Policies Explained . Accounting Insights. https://accountinginsights.org/modern-economic-principles-and-policies-explained/ AncientSocieties Team. (2025, February 5). Unearthing the Economic Culture of Ancient Greece: A Deep Dive . Ancient Societies. https://ancientsocieties.net/blog/history/ancient-greece-economic-culture/ Biernat, M. (2023, February 4). The Economy in the Middle Ages: The Medieval Economic System – Political Economy . Political-Economy.com . https://political-economy.com/the-economy-in-the-middle-ages-the-medieval-economic-system/#google_vignette Green, J. (2024, June 23). How did the Renaissance in Europe impact society economically? - Geographic Pedia . Geographic Pedia. https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-pedia/how-did-the-renaissance-in-europe-impact-society-economically/ Mark, J. J. (2017, June 15). Trade in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/ Roman Empire Staff. (2025a, March 4). The Insane Wealth of the Roman Empire - Roman Empire . The Roman Empire. https://roman-empire.net/society/the-insane-wealth-of-the-roman-empire Roman Empire Staff. (2025b, March 4). The Roman Economy Explained - Trade, Taxes and Financial Power . The Roman Empire. https://roman-empire.net/society/the-roman-economy-explained-trade-taxes-and-financial-power Stearns, P. N. (2020). Happiness in World History . Routledge.

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction The world of music and entertainment has changed largely over time, reflecting changes in technology, culture, and values. From early community performances to global entertainment and streaming services, the way people create and share music has been vastly transformed. This paper will walk through the major changes in music and entertainment over time, focusing on historical periods, technological innovations, and their respective cultural impacts. In ancient cultures, music played an important role in rituals, celebrations, and even daily activities, highlighting its importance in social and spiritual life (Becker, 2024). Many of these early forms of music and entertainment were ways of passing down stories, traditions, and wisdom to future generations. This allowed for the sharing of knowledge between communities, along with promoting community engagement and connectivity. In addition to the words holding meaning, the musical instruments that were used were also typically symbolic. Flutes, drums, lyres, etc., most often had special meanings to them and were handcrafted using available materials. This added to the importance these instruments held in music. These hand-crafted tools would serve as key pieces in weddings, funerals, and other ceremonies.   Early string instruments consisted of lyres and harps and were most often made out of animal guts and plant fibers (Becker, 2024). These instruments were used to add emotional depth to music, evoking responses from the audience. Percussion instruments mostly consisted of drums and cymbals and were most often constructed out of wood or different animal skins. In many ancient cultures, percussion instruments were very important and held spiritual importance, like the sound of drums summoning rain or honoring the gods (Becker, 2024). Early wind instruments included flutes and horns and were most often made from bone, wood, or metal. These instruments typically generated rich or soothing tones and were used in dances and ceremonies (Becker, 2024).   Ancient Egypt In Ancient Egyptian culture, music was very valuable and used as a method of communication with the gods. The Egyptians loved music and dancing, valuing both as ways of ceremony and entertainment. Dancing was associated with religious devotion and human sexuality (Mark, 2017). Instruments consisted of percussion, stringed, and wind varieties and were often played solo or as part of a larger group. While instruments were played, the ancient Egyptians did not have any ideas of the concept of musical notation and instead passed songs down from generation to generation. With regard to entertainment, dance was a very popular way for individuals to stay active and engaged with others. Music and dance served to bring those in religious ceremonies closer to their faith (Mark, 2017). Hymns to the gods were often sung to the accompaniment of musical instruments and dance. This was believed to show respect and honor to the gods. Another popular form of entertainment was local shows such as reenactments of popular events or stories. This would be attended by all types of citizens, ranging from lower-class people all the way to the royals.   Ancient Greece Much like the ancient Egyptians, the Greeks also relied heavily on music and entertainment as a core piece of their culture. Entertainment events such as festivals, rituals, parties, work, games, theater, and war were all typically accompanied by music (Kelsey Museum, n.d.). Professional musicians were valued members of society whose musical skills were judged in public competitions. Like earlier periods, there was a range of musical instruments that were played. These include wind instruments like flutes, stringed instruments like harps, and percussion instruments like drums.    The Greeks were also the first to propose musical notation. This has left around 50 different compositions preserved to be recorded to this day. Ancient Greeks developed a system that used symbols, representing pitches and rhythms, highlighting the melody rather than the harmony (Becker, 2024). Much of this was aided by the use of the Greek alphabet to represent the different musical notes. These developments laid the way for much of the world to build upon, setting a solid early foundation for music.   Ancient Rome Unlike Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire did not place a heavy emphasis on music as a core principle of its culture. This does not mean music was not a part of the community, but it does highlight how Roman society differed from others. They used similar instruments to previous civilizations, and sang songs about many of the same topics as others, including religion, love, and war. Although the Romans did not revolutionize music, their forms of entertainment are the topic of many popular movies and television shows. The most popular were gladiator fights, with the best-known arena being the Coliseum. These fights were infamous during the time, and people would come from all over to watch the fighting that would take place within. Whether that be groups of people fighting each other, men fighting wild animals, etc., these were wildly popular and enjoyed by people of all classes.   Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, many new types of entertainment emerged. Board Games were very popular in this era, with people playing Chess, Backgammon, The Philosopher Game, Fox & Geese, Knucklebones, Hazard, and many others (Chakra, 2022). Chess grew to be very popular at the t ime after its introduction to Europe in the 9 th  century. Competitive gaming was also very popular during this time, with people regularly gambling on chess games. Outdoor entertainment experienced a rise during this time, with activities like archery, fencing, wrestling,  hammer-throwing, horseshoe-throwing, and many others being further developed or created. Many of these games helped lay the foundation for other games that are still played to this day, like football and cricket. In addition to these games, hunting was often a sport of nobility where nobles would ride horses with their dogs chasing down their targets. Knights and jousting were also influential during this period, where knights would use horses and jousting sticks to best one another and bring honor to their families and nobles. Music was also important, mostly influenced by the church and religion. Aside from the instruments that were played in the church, courtly love was a major theme in medieval celebrations (Chakra, 2022). Some of the main instruments of this era included cymbals, harps, flutes, horns, and tubas, which were often played by established performers and travel groups.   Renaissance Music and entertainment both experienced significant developments during this period of time. Music evolved from solo vocalists to multiple singers singing different melodies simultaneously, accompanied by musical instruments. In addition to this, most music during earlier periods was modal (meaning it followed musical modes as opposed to the major and minor scales). This changed during the Renaissance, and tonal music began to grow, bringing new sounds and ideas to how music can be played and shared. This led to the development of new instruments as well, leading to new sounds and innovations. Popular instruments of the time included the guitar, recorder, flute, trumpet, and trombone. The rise of established performers also grew during this time. One such composer was Josquin des Prez, who was a well-known composer of both church music and secular music. His works were taught in music schools as examples of Renaissance harmony and notation and held in high regard during the time (MasterClass, 2020).   Entertainment during this time was similar to earlier time periods. Plays, shows, dances, and games were very popular among all people regardless of class. These plays would often recount historical events or popular fables of the time. Being that this was a time of rapid intellectual development and discoveries, writing rapidly grew during this time. Plays were written down and books were created and could be shared with others, with the most notable playwright being William Shakespeare. Public celebrations, feasts, carnivals, and pageants were also common, often featuring costumes and music. Art grew during this period, with many new sculptures, drawings, paintings, and more being created and observed during this time period.   Modern Age Music As time went on, the culture of music continued to change. In the 19th century, African Americans developed music culture through the creation of the blues and jazz. This music was derived from slavery, and the deep emotional response many of the songs elicited shared the pain and suffering experienced by many. As jazz developed in New Orleans in the 20th century, it brought together musicians of all backgrounds, mixing European instruments and African rhythms (Sutherland, 2024). Popular artists like Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and others transformed the landscape of music culture in the United States.   The evolution of rock and roll brought yet another new sound to the world of music. Rock and roll artists like Elvis Presley mixed their catchy songs with energetic performances to bring crowds to life. With the rise of television and radio, rock ‘n’ roll reached mass audiences, influencing fashion, dance, and lifestyle (Sutherland, 2024). This genre was particularly influential to teenagers who viewed this music as a form of rebellion and freedom.   As time went on, music continued to change to fit the needs of the society in which it exists. Festivals like Woodstock in 1969 personified these changes in music, culture, and activism, as thousands of people gathered to celebrate music while calling for an end to war (Sutherland, 2024). Today, concerts and music festivals remain very popular, and thousands and thousands of people will attend them to see their favorite artist or band. As the size and number of music platforms have grown, so too has the number of artists people can interact with. Platforms like Spotify, Apple Music, and YouTube make it possible for people to access millions of songs at the click of a button, while social media allows artists to interact with their fans in real-time (Sutherland, 2024).   Modern age entertainment The invention of the television revolutionized entertainment, introducing new ways in which music, shows, sports, and more can be shared and observed. The development of movies allowed individuals to insert themselves into a story in ways that were not available before. Video games, streaming platforms, and social media have continued to emerge as new avenues for engagement, offering interactive experiences and unprecedented connectivity (Matt, n.d.). With the development of streaming platforms, television channels, and more, people have a variety of shows, movies, sports, news, and more to enjoy at the click of a button. Many TVs now come with services such as Netflix and Hulu already installed, while other streaming apps can be downloaded on smart devices as needed (Smith, 2021). As a whole, the rise of television has transformed how individuals are able to be entertained, connecting large portions of the globe to shows and sporting events.   Conclusion Music and other forms of entertainment have existed since the beginning of time as ways in which people can enjoy themselves. As time has gone on, the way these are enjoyed has changed drastically. Early civilizations placed heavy emphasis on religion and spiritual performances, while today there is a much broader range of topics and genres of music that can be listened to and enjoyed. The development of musical notation, the rise of public performances, and the introduction of new instruments and genres laid a foundation for the diversity we see today. The rise of streaming platforms and other technological developments has paved the way for both music and entertainment to grow. As we continue advancing into the future, music and entertainment will remain key pieces of the human experience, bringing communities together and shaping society.   Sources Becker, L. (2024, December 22). The Role of Music in Ancient Cultures: A Journey Through Time and Tradition - Ancient History Guide . Ancient History Guide. https://ancienthistoryguide.com/the-role-of-music-in-ancient-cultures/ Chakra, H. (2022, December 8). What People Did To Entertain Themselves In The Middle Ages - About History . AboutHistory. https://about-history.com/medieval-entertainment/#google_vignette Kelsey Museum. (n.d.). Music in the Greek and Roman World . Exhibitions.kelsey.lsa.umich.edu . https://exhibitions.kelsey.lsa.umich.edu/galleries/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/GreekRoman/GreekRoman.html Mark, J. (2017, May 19). Music & Dance in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1075/music--dance-in-ancient-egypt/ MasterClass. (2020). Renaissance Era Music Guide: A History of Renaissance Music - 2024 - MasterClass . MasterClass. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/renaissance-music-guide Matt. (n.d.). The Evolution of Entertainment: Past, Present, and Beyond . Mattshotspot.com . https://mattshotspot.com/The-Evolution-of-Entertainment-Past-Present-and-Beyond.php Smith, C. (2021, December 1). A brief history of the evolution of TV: From the 1920s to the 2020s . KnowTechie. https://knowtechie.com/a-brief-history-of-the-evolution-of-tv-from-the-1920s-to-the-2020s/ Sutherland, J. (2024). Music and Culture: History and Impact of Music on Society . Band Pioneer. https://bandpioneer.com/advice/music-and-culture-history-and-impact-of-music-on-society

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction This research paper will serve to outline the key changes in dentistry throughout time, highlighting some of the major time periods and empires within history. The paper will walk through techniques, beliefs surrounding dental care, and provide images of ancient tools and procedures. The progression through time will be as follows: Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 18 th - 19 th  century, and lastly modern-day 20 th  - 21 st century dentistry.   Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) In Ancient Egypt, dental care was primarily handled by priests and scribes, representing the close association that ancient societies placed between health and religion. They believed that dental issues were very often the result of spiritual imbalances or supernatural forces that plagued the individual. One example is the famous ‘tooth worms’, which were thought to cause decay in the teeth of individuals, leading to very painful treatments to rid the individual of them. With regards to dental tools and techniques, evidence from mummified remains shows that Egyptians used basic dental tools and herbal remedies to alleviate pain and stabilize teeth. For example, gold wires were used to bind loose teeth to prevent them from falling out (BiologyInsights Team, 2025). Oral infections were treated by various herb and spice mixes, most notably cumin, incense, onion, myrrh, camphor, and cinnamon. They created a tooth cleansing powder made from mint, salt, pepper, and dried iris flowers. The Egyptians also developed breath mints, mixing herbs and spices with honey (San-Aset, 2020). Although innovative, many of the Ancient Egyptian dental practices were basic and not widely effective, with much of the focus on pain management rather than actual prevention or curing of the root problem.   The following is an image of the gold wiring technique used to keep teeth in place by the Ancient Egyptians. Ancient Greece (800 BCE – 150 BCE) Ancient Greek philosophers, like Hippocrates and Aristotle, began widely incorporating dentistry into their wider understanding of medicine. Dentists of the time were physicians and philosophers who explored the causes of dental issues. It was widely believed that diseases and dental conditions were connected with imbalances in bodily fluids. Hippocrates, often referred to as the "Father of Medicine," described dental ailments, emphasizing preventive care. He recommended the use of specific herbal remedies to manage oral diseases, highlighting the importance of diet and hygiene in maintaining dental health (Olden Tech Editorial, 2023). This was a period of massive growth in knowledge, with the Greeks spending large amounts of time studying anatomy and the root causes of dental issues. Their exploration into the causes of tooth decay and gum disease fostered a greater understanding and appreciation for oral pathology (Olden Tech Editorial, 2023). With this increase in knowledge, the Greeks performed simple extractions and used gold wires to stabilize teeth, like the Ancient Egyptians did. Additionally, herbs were used to create rinses to clean teeth, soothe pain, and freshen breath. During this period of time, dentistry was not a unique field but integrated into the general medical practice, emphasizing its importance in the greater medical sphere.   An image of some of the dental tools from Ancient Greece. Many are similar to those of the Ancient Egyptians, with similar gold wiring techniques used as well. Roman Empire (500 BCE – 450 CE) The Romans continued to advance dental care with the utilization of practical techniques and tools. They relied on barber-surgeons who performed tooth extractions using forceps and used rudimentary fillings to repair cavities. During Ancient Roman times, doctors performed tooth extractions. Dentures were made using boxwood, bone, or ivory. Extractions relied on crude forceps. Based on the Twelve Tables of Roman legislation, we also know that gold was used on teeth during the time (Lentz, 2022). In addition to these techniques, the Romans placed a heavy emphasis on oral hygiene. They created makeshift toothbrushes, toothpaste, mouthwashes, and more. Frayed twigs of aromatic woods like cinnamon and olive were used as toothbrushes; eggshells, pumice, seashells, and more were used to create toothpaste; urine, vinegar, and other mixes were used to create mouthwashes for the Romans to use (Hawryluk, 2023). Like the Ancient Egyptians, the Romans were not focused on identifying the root causes of dental pain and instead were focused on relieving immediate pain and providing functionality. As a result of this, tooth loss was a common issue due to the extensive use of lead in cookware and cosmetics, where teeth were replaced with human or animal teeth using gold or silver wires to keep them in place (Hawryluk, 2023). With the high levels of pain, Ancient Romans turned to Apollonia, the patron saint for those suffering from toothaches (Lentz, 2022). As a whole, the Ancient Roman dental system made several procedural advances in the field, prioritizing pain remedies and immediate treatment plans.   An image of forceps the Roman Empire may have used for tooth extractions: Middle Ages (500 CE – 1500 CE) During the period of time termed the Middle Ages, dental care saw some regressions as much of the general medical and dental knowledge from earlier civilizations was lost. Dental providers were referred to as ‘barbers’ and made up two different groups, barber-surgeons and lay-barbers. Barber-surgeons were educated and trained to perform complex operations, while lay-barbers would help with more routine services. Like earlier civilizations, dental providers of the time performed extractions and other basic procedures. They were also heavily involved in creating dental hygiene products like tooth powders and chewing sticks. Herbal ingredients played a substantial role in tooth powders, with substances like sage, mint, myrrh, cloves, and cinnamon commonly used. Abrasive components were often added to these tooth powders to aid in the cleaning process, such as crushed shells or ground charcoal. Salt was another key component of tooth powder as it was believed to have antibacterial properties and reduce oral infections (Hodges, 2023). During this time, it was common for barber-surgeons to use methods like cauterization and bloodletting, the latter reflecting the belief that dental issues are a result of bodily imbalances. Lastly, near the end of the Middle Ages, laws began being implemented preventing lay-barbers from practicing complex dental procedures and requiring barber-surgeons to pass examinations.    Here is an image of a medieval toothbrush that is made of bone. Renaissance (1400 – 1700 CE) The Renaissance period marked strong growth in scientific inquiry, with dentistry emerging as a distinct discipline. This was a period with many individuals conducting large amounts of research and gaining a deeper understanding of the body and its makeup. The first anatomy books were published during this time with images of each component. Dental care was provided by barber-surgeons, who during this time made strong advancements in tooth replacement and fillings. This marked a significant shift in dentistry, with previous care centered around treating immediate pain while Renaissance providers focused on restoring and replacing damaged or lost teeth. They developed methods for filling teeth plagued with cavities and built early forms of dentures. Additionally, they used and improved tools like the dental pelican, which was used for dental extractions. Overall, this period saw a shift from purely practical treatments to a more scientific approach, though pain management remained basic and yet to be understood.   18 th – 19 th  Century This period saw the emergence of specialized dentists. After all that was learned during the Renaissance era, dentistry was recognized as a specialized profession. Pierre Fauchard, regarded as ‘The Father of Modern Dentistry,’ introduced complex techniques for treating oral diseases. His contributions include the treatment of tooth decay and the utilization/creation of more advanced dental prosthetics. He took materials like ivory and human teeth to make dentures, fixing them with gold wire and waxed thread (Aksoy et al., 2024). Additionally, he pioneered the invention of cavity fillings using metals, including lead, tin, and gold for dental fillings. He found that removing all traces of caries (tooth decay) before filling in the tooth would strengthen it (Aksoy et al., 2024). This became a cornerstone for modern dentistry and is still a practice followed today. Fauchard also heavily relied on specialized tools like drills and cauterizers to repair, replace, and treat oral problems. Fauchard was among the first to dismiss the idea that worms in teeth caused decay, instead attributing dental caries to acids derived from sugar (Aksoy et al., 2024). His work and others like it during this time greatly revolutionized the way dental care was provided, building the framework for modern dentistry. Another notable discovery of the time was anesthesia, discovered in the 19th century. This allowed for dental procedures to be less painful. Additionally, improved methods of filling cavities and making dentures were created and refined, making them more accessible to the lower/middle classes.   Here is an image of some of the tools Pierre Fauchard would have used in his procedures. 20 th  – 21 st Century This is the modern day of dentistry, where dentists, orthodontists, and other specialized dentists provide all of the care. One of the major evolutions of the time was the addition of dental X-rays. The first case of using X-rays in dental practices was done by C. Edmund Kells in 1896; however, the widespread use of dental X-rays was not implemented until the late 1950s (Brazdo, 2018). Additionally, fluoride was first added to toothpaste in the 1950s, completely changing the way dental care was performed, reducing cavities significantly (National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 2000). Crowns, root canals, and braces became standard procedures with the development of materials, including porcelain and resins, which greatly improved dental restorations. With so many new inventions and discoveries made, dental care shifted from pain management to prevention, understanding that dental care plays a role in overall health and well-being. The invention of smart toothbrushes, teeth whitening strips, flossers, and more has allowed for dental hygiene unlike ever before. As dentistry continues to grow and advance, it is expected that technology will continue to play a big part. Dental surgeries can utilize 3D printing, laser technology, and more to provide well-rounded treatments and procedures, yielding a holistic model of care for the patient.    Here is an image of dental X-rays: Conclusion The history of dentistry reflects society's ongoing pursuit of better health. This has evolved from early efforts to prevent pain to the current methods of preventative and restorative care. Reliance on spiritual beliefs shaped early civilizations, with later technological advancements yielding new changes and methods of care. Influential figures like Hippocrates, Pierre Fauchard, and modern pioneers helped shift dental care from a reactive to a proactive practice. As we move into the future, advancements in digital technology, artificial intelligence, and bioengineering are primed to further revolutionize dentistry, making treatments more precise, accessible, and patient-centered.   Sources Aksoy, U., Aksoy, S., Dilan Kırmızı, & Kaan Orhan. (2024). Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761): Pioneering Dental Surgeon of the Enlightenment Age. Cureus . https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.69563 BiologyInsights Team. (2025, February 12). Ancient Egyptian Dentistry: Tools, Treatments, and Beliefs . BiologyInsights. https://biologyinsights.com/ancient-egyptian-dentistry-tools-treatments-and-beliefs/ Brazdo, Dr. M. (2018, July 24). The Evolution of Dental X-Rays . Artistic Touch Dentistry; Artistic Touch Dentistry. https://www.artistictouchdentistry.com/general-dentistry/the-evolution-of-dental-x-rays/ Hawryluk, D. A. (2023, August 10). Exploring Ancient Roman Dental Health . St. Lawrence Dentistry. https://www.stlawrencedentistry.com/blog/dental-health/exploring-ancient-roman-dental-health-a-glimpse-into-the-past/ Hodges, P. (2023). Dental Hygiene Practices of the Middle Ages. Medieval Historia . https://doi.org/1025161/74749 Lentz, K. (2022, December 8). A Look Back at Dentistry in Ancient Rome . American Dental. https://atooth.com/a-look-back-at-dentistry-in-ancient-rome/ National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. (2000). The Story of Fluoridation | National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research . Nih.gov . https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/health-info/fluoride/the-story-of-fluoridation Olden Tech Editorial. (2023, July 2). Exploring Ancient Dental Care Practices Throughout History - Olden Tech . The Insurance Universe. https://oldentech.com/ancient-dental-care/ San-Aset. (2020, April 3). Magical Herbal Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians . Iseum Sanctuary. https://iseumsanctuary.com/2020/04/02/magical-herbal-medicine-of-the-ancient-egyptians/