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By Jacob Lindbert Introduction This paper will aim to outline some of the key changes and innovations in medicine through time. It will dive through major periods and empires within history, ending with the modern age of medicine. The paper will include beliefs surrounding medicine at the time, techniques used, and discuss ancient tools and procedures. The following periods will be evaluated: Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, Ancient China, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 18 th  - 19 th century, and lastly modern-day 20 th  - 21 st  century medicine.    Mesopotamia (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) In ancient Mesopotamia, medicine was directly intertwined with religion, with the gods overseeing every aspect of daily living. Gula , the  Sumerian  goddess of healing, guided doctors and dentists in the treatment of health problems, which were typically attributed to supernatural causes (Mark, 2023). Doctors of ancient Mesopotamia were believed to work through the deities to protect the health of others, utilizing herbs, rituals, omens, etc., to perform their treatments. Generally, the path to becoming a doctor was long, taking 10-12 years, and requiring one to become a scribe, learn cuneiform script, and master the curriculum (Mark, 2023). There were two different types of doctors, an asu and an asipu. An asu was a medical doctor treating illness or injury empirically, while an asipu was a healer who relied on magic (Mark, 2023). With the reliance on religion, a doctor could do everything right but still have their patient die. This was often attributed to a god being angry with that individual, where even if one god is pleased, an angry god could yield poor health outcomes. Another interesting factor was that service fees were based on a sliding scale of one’s social status. A doctor treating a prince or wealthy person may be paid in gold, whereas pay from a poor individual may include a clay cup or food. Regardless, all of the evidence states that prescriptions and treatments were given equitably, disregarding social status.   Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) Ancient Egyptians made great advancements in the field of medicine, understanding that diseases could be treated and the importance of cleanliness when treating patients. Injuries were easy to understand in ancient Egypt; disease was a bit more difficult. When someone was injured, there was a plain cause and an effect which could then be treated; when a person was sick, however, the cause was less clear and so the diagnosis was more problematic (Mark, 2017). Although there was a strong understanding of the basis of medicine, it was still believed that the root cause of sickness was the consequence of sin and demonic attack. To treat patients, Egyptian doctors used a variety of methods. Doctors used incantations, amulets, offerings, aromas, and more to either drive away the ghost or demon, placate the god or gods who had sent the illness, or invoke protection from a higher power (Mark, 2017). Doctors were believed to be pure in spirit and body, protected by greater powers and were classified as either swnw , general practitioners, or  sau , whose specialty was in the use of magic (Mark, 2017). Doctors were also comfortable performing surgeries and more advanced treatments, and based on evidence obtained from mummies, show a high degree of success. The Egyptians used tools including a  metal  scalpel, dental pliers, a bone saw, probes, the catheter, clamps for stopping blood flow, specula, forceps, lancets for opening veins, sponges, scissors, phials, bandages of linen, and scales for weighing the proper amount of raw materials to mix for medicines (Mark, 2017). Lastly, the Ancient Egyptians wrote large amounts of information about early treatment of medical conditions, showing an advanced understanding of the conditions for the time. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) treats cancer (stating there is no treatment), heart disease, diabetes, birth control, and depression, while the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE) is the oldest work on surgical techniques (Mark, 2017). These writings helped mold the future of medical understanding, setting the basis for future Greek and Roman advancements.   Ancient India (1500 BCE – 500 CE) In Ancient India, the primary methodology of medical care was a form of healing called Ayurveda, meaning knowledge of life. There are two treatments in Ayurveda: purification therapy (Shodhana) and alleviating/palliative therapy (Shamana Chikitsa). Shodhana treatment attacks dangerous doshas, which cause life-threatening illnesses, while Shamana therapy uses Ayurvedic medicines (Kalla, 2021). During the sixth century BC, a sage known as Sushruta—the “father of surgery”—documented more than 1,100 diseases, catalogued the use of medical herbs, and wrote directives for performing many surgical procedures, including rhinoplasty and skin grafts (Kalla, 2021). Early practitioners of Ayurveda were sages who were connected with faith and considered health an important part of basic human life. These sages would advise on nutrition and use herbs as part of their treatment. Ancient India utilized and built upon Ancient Egypt’s medical findings, utilizing their faith-based approach to healing.   Ancient China (1500 BCE – 220 CE) In Ancient China, the traditional model of medical care was the cosmic theory of yin-yang. The male yang principle is active and light, while the female yin principle is passive and dark. A strong emphasis was placed on the human body, with it being made of five elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Health, character, and the success of all political and private ventures were determined by the yin or the yang, and ancient Chinese medicine aimed to control their proportions in the body (Fercility, 2019). Popular medical treatments and procedures conducted by healers and doctors included acupuncture, moxibustion, and herbal remedies. One of the most notable medical texts from this period is called The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon, which presented views on the human body and how it connected to the yin-yang, five elements, and Qi. Ancient China was composed of several dynasties, each with its own specific viewpoints on medicine, politics, religion, etc. The Shang people were religious and believed illness resulted from upsetting an ancestor, being cursed, or an evil demon entering the body (Mortlock, 2020). They relied on shamans to conduct medical care, utilizing rituals to talk to ancestors to find answers as to the cause of the illness or pain. Another notable text was The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, which described bodily anatomy, the blood and circulation, physiology, pathology, diagnosis and treatment, acupuncture, and more (Mortlock, 2020).   Ancient Greece (800 BCE – 150 BCE) In Ancient Greece, illness was typically viewed as divine punishment, while healing was a gift bestowed by the gods. By the 5th century BCE, there were attempts to identify the material causes for illnesses rather than spiritual ones, leading to a move away from superstition towards scientific enquiry (Cartwright, 2018). With the shift to scientific understanding of medicine, anatomy and physiology were widely studied, mostly as a side effect of studying wounded soldiers from ongoing battles and wars during the time. None of these developments were more important than the creation and development of the Hippocratic Oath, which is still recited by all doctors today. While the words of the oath have changed over time, the general sentiment of doctors doing their best to promote patient health resounds. Like other ancient civilizations, much of medical care still utilized herbs to care for mental and physical health concerns.   Roman Empire (500 BCE – 450 CE) The Roman Empire built upon the findings of the Greeks, placing a large emphasis on public health and infrastructure. They recognized the negative side effects of poor town/city hygiene, building aqueducts, sewers, and baths to promote cleaner cities and individuals. This reduced the amount of sewage in the streets and the sickness that prevailed. The Romans created many pills that were made of herbs and plants and used to treat colds and sicknesses. An example of this was a pill used to treat bad coughs made from saffron, myrrh,  pepper , costmary, galbanum, cinnamon, castoreum, and poppy tears (Cartwright, 2013). Like other civilizations, surgery was largely avoided due to the risks involved and the amount of anatomy yet to be discovered and understood. However, many medical treatments were still employed. Sophisticated operations were carried out, including the removal of cataracts, draining of fluids, trephination, and even the reversal of circumcision. Wounds were stitched following surgery using flax, linen thread, or metal pins, and dressings of linen bandages or sponges were used (Cartwright, 2013).   Middle Ages (500 CE – 1500 CE) Medicine during the Middle Ages relied on the findings of earlier civilizations and religion. There tended to be very few doctors during this time, with few universities to study at, leading to many suffering horrible fates. As a result of the lack of doctors, many visited apothecaries or other alternative healers who heavily used herbal remedies for treatment. Although much of the medical practice during the early part of the Middle Ages was primitive, Islamic scholars around 10 CE started to make some advancements. Notable scholar Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī built upon Galen and Hippocrates' work from Ancient Greece and Rome. He believed that medicine should focus on treating patients individually as opposed to placing them into set groupings. He also believed that diet and hygiene played a larger role in medicine than previously thought. He is also credited as being the first to distinguish the difference between smallpox and measles – two diseases that had the potential to spread quickly and kill (BBC, n.d.). While much was learned during this period of time, there were still many limitations in knowledge, as highlighted by epidemics like the Bubonic Plague. Even though there were many difficulties during this time, the shift to individual, patient-centered medicine was further highlighted as the most effective approach, setting the basis for how medical care is still provided today.    Renaissance (1400 – 1700 CE) The Renaissance was a period of great growth and innovation in culture, arts, medicine, and more. This was a period of curiosity, where many medical practitioners dove deeper into their studies. The creation of the printing press allowed for the mass production of medical information and texts. Additional new technologies emerged as well, with new techniques and tools to treat medical conditions. Even with all of the new developments, much of medical care was essentially the same. There were still large information gaps, with methods of diagnosis not greatly improving from previous civilizations. Physicians still were unsure how to cure infectious diseases, and when faced with the plague or syphilis, they regularly turned to superstitious rites and magic (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). However, advancements in disease management were developed, namely the creation of vaccines. Edward Anthony Jenner, an English doctor and scientist, is known as the pioneer of vaccinations and created the smallpox vaccine (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). Generally, the Renaissance period was a time of innovation and curiosity, with many scholars and medical professionals devoting time and resources to learning more about the body and how each of its parts works. The findings of individuals like Leonardo Da Vinci and others helped launch modern-day medicine.   18 th – 19 th  Century The 18th to 19th centuries were a time of great growth and knowledge. This was the marked start of specific medical fields and doctors having a specialty that they spent their life learning about. Some notable developments were the beginnings of the science of modern pathology, the invention of the stethoscope, the invention of germ theory, and the development of a robust understanding of human anatomy. By the 19th century, the structure of the  human body  was almost fully known, due to new methods of microscopy and injections. Even the body’s microscopic structure was understood (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). One of the most spectacular discoveries was the identification that small living organisms cause specific diseases (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Famous medical personnel and scientists include Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister. Pasteur is credited with establishing the science of bacteriology, proving that the fermentation of wine was due to living microorganisms. Joseph Lister introduced the antiseptic principle into surgery, promoting improved medical hygiene and surgical outcomes. Lastly, general anesthesia was developed, which freed patients from pain due to surgery and allowed surgeons to perform more extensive operations. Overall, this period of time was crucial, with many advancements in both techniques, tools, knowledge, and more.   20 th – 21 st  Century The 20th to 21st century experienced another explosion of medical innovations. Antibiotics revolutionized infection treatment, technologies like X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs transformed diagnostics, vaccines helped eradicate diseases, and modern hospitals and specialized fields drastically improved patient care. The greater understanding and mapping of the genome has allowed for an even more robust understanding. Electron microscopy allowed researchers to look deeper into the structures of the cell, revealing clues to their functions (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Organ transplants, increased numbers of medications, and improved knowledge have further revolutionized medicine. Developments in patient care have promoted better health outcomes, with safer and more sanitary operating rooms. This section of the research cannot possibly highlight all of the major discoveries and advancements of the 20 th  to 21 st  century, as more is developed and discovered every day. In all, this period has led to much improved health outcomes, with fewer deaths due to surgery, fewer infections, and a more robust understanding of the body and how to treat problems that arise. Conclusion The field of medicine has drastically changed over time. Early emphasis on religion influencing health outcomes placed an increased importance on spiritual leaders within society. As more knowledge was discovered and advanced medications and techniques developed, medicine continued to change. New vaccines and pills prevented deaths and yielded longer life spans with improved health outcomes. New technologies have allowed for more advanced procedures and life-saving measures. As a whole, the advancement of medical knowledge and practice has transformed how people live, reducing young deaths and encouraging future medical discoveries.   Sources BBC. (n.d.). Medicine in the Middle Ages, 500CE to 1500CE . BBC Bitesize. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zwqqm39/articles/zk4nf82#zkmybqt Cartwright, M. (2013, October 26). Roman Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Medicine/ Cartwright, M. (2018, April 11). Ancient Greek Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Medicine/ Fercility. (2019). The History of Chinese Medicine . China Highlights. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-medicine/history.htm Kalla, K. (2021). History of medicine in ancient India - Hektoen International . Hekint.org . https://hekint.org/2021/08/27/history-of-medicine-in-ancient-india/ Mark, J. (2017, February 17). Egyptian Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Medicine/ Mark, J. J. (2023, January 25). Medicine in Ancient Mesopotamia . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/687/medicine-in-ancient-mesopotamia/ Mortlock, S. (2020, September 3). A history of Chinese medicine . Biomedical Scientist. https://thebiomedicalscientist.net/2020/09/03/history-chinese-medicine Richardson, R., & Guthrie, D. (2025, February 8). History of medicine - Verification of the germ theory . Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory The MNT Editorial Team. (2018, November 2). Medieval and Renaissance medicine: Practice and developments (D. Murrell, Ed.). Www.medicalnewstoday.com . https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323533#vaccination

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout time, transportation has changed as technology has developed alongside it. As technology advanced, so too did transportation, revolutionizing how individuals are able to move around the globe. From the earliest forms of human movement to the advanced technologies of the 21st century, transportation has evolved to meet the changing needs of people and industries. These developments have facilitated new modes of trade, communication, and cultural exchange. This paper will dive into the major changes that have taken place with regard to transportation and how they have impacted society.   Key Timeline of transportation 4000 BC - Horses and camels are domesticated and used for transport. 3500 BC - Fixed wheels on carts are invented. 3500 BC - River boats are invented. 2000 BC - First chariots are built. 312 BC - Paved roads are built by the Romans. 1783 - First hot air balloon launched. 1801 - The first Steam road locomotive is run. 1814 - The first steam-powered railway train is built by George Stephenson. 1816 - The earliest bicycle is made. 1904 - The Wright Brothers fly the first motor-driven airplane. 1908 - First Ford Cars manufactured. 1957 - First man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, launched into orbit. 1981 - First flight of the space shuttle lifts off, 20 years after the first manned space flight .   All dates and information came from (twinkl, 2021).   The wheel While no single person or civilization is credited with the development of the wheel, it is believed that its creation dates as far back as the ancient Sumerians. The earliest wheels were made by inserting rotating axles into smooth, solid wooden discs (Tolentino, 2023). Its development marked a turning point in history, with new travel, farming, and military uses. This made way for horse and carriage travel, moving away from walking being the sole form of travel to new methods of transporting goods throughout towns and countries.   With the development of the wheel, new roads were needed to foster improved travel conditions. Transport of people and goods in those times was done with carts that were pulled by animals. Engineers quickly noticed that animals would spend much less energy if the cart traveled on a predetermined path, without the possibility for steering over uneven terrain (Train History, 2025). These paved roads allowed for more efficient travel, communication, and trade, contributing to urbanization, improved military maneuvers, and enhanced transport efficiency (twinkl, 2021). The development of the wheel led to new infrastructure needs and ultimately helped civilizations grow. With the improved means of trade, cities had access to materials and goods that allowed them to build improved houses, farms, and other infrastructure, improving their livelihoods.   Hot air balloon In 1783, the first hot air balloon was developed in France. Early balloons were made of paper and cloth and fueled by fire heated inside, causing the balloon to swell and rise off the ground. The balloon would be attached to a basket woven together, allowing a passenger to get in and direct the movement of the balloon. While hot air balloons had practical uses, they were mostly symbols of innovation, freedom, and culture, leading expeditions and displaying the progress of their countries. Hot air balloons have influenced imagination around the world, inspiring works of art, literature, and music (history tools, 2024). This is observed in many movies seen today, where hot air balloons are shown with beautiful, vibrant colors. While hot air balloons are not the most popular form of travel or the most convenient, they remain a popular tourist attraction in many parts of the world. Trains and Steamboats The Industrial Revolution transformed the entire makeup of the American economy. This shift from rural to urban living generated the shift from producing goods for self-use to producing goods for sale on the market. The industrial revolution led to the transportation revolution, which involved the creation of bridges, canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). The development of the train system and steamboats revolutionized how the United States was able to transport goods.   The creation of the steamboat transformed how goods and services could be shared throughout the country. With many crops and goods being generated in specific geographic regions of the country, without proper transportation, these goods were isolated to those particular people. For example, farmers living in the West often had no way to transport their goods to other areas due to land barriers, like mountains, and a lack of transportation options (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). This transformed the economy of the country, creating more jobs in running, maintaining, and producing these steamboats and other transportation systems. Steamboats used massive amounts of wood for fuel, and people living along rivers had opportunities to develop new businesses of wood processing (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). This led to the creation of refueling stops, generating even more jobs for individuals to get involved in. In addition to the increase in jobs and the increased production of goods, the development of steamboats led to improved cultural diffusion. This diffusion was largely spread by crewmates and passengers of the ships. As crewmates reached new ports, they would go out and meet different people, spreading ideas, values, and culture through travel. News and ideas traveled through the various steamboat ports and led to an increase in communication among the different regions of the United States (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). Passengers were able to go to new areas of the country, meeting people from different countries and experiencing different geographies. As a whole, the creation of the steamboat helped bridge the East and West.   Trains were around before the Industrial Revolution, with early locomotives being developed in the early 1800s. The first trains could pull  25 tons and 70 people, showing others that they had a use in society and did have the necessary power to transport goods and people across long distances. The commercialization of trains came in the 1820s, with steam locomotives proving to be the most reliable and powerful. As train technology rapidly grew over the first few decades, urban engineers in London started formulating the first plans for inter-city railway tracks and underground tunnels. This marked the beginning of the new era of urban  transit  systems, with underground Metros now appearing across the entire world (Train History, 2025). This helped generate new growth across cities and towns throughout the U.S., promoting improved cooperation, providing new opportunities, and fostering new designs and developments. As of today, trains remain one of the most important ways of getting people around, with large cities relying on them to transport millions of people every day.   Airplanes and Helicopters Many of the earliest ideas of flight trace back to Ancient Greek mythology, namely the story of Icarus and how he flew too close to the sun. This early story depicted how Icarus aimed to fly away like a bird, using feathers and wax on his arms, yet he flew too close to the sun, the wax melted, and he fell back to earth. These early ideas of flight continued to develop into later periods, namely the Renaissance, where Leonardo da Vinci wrote about designs for potential mechanical flying machines. Among da Vinci’s drawn sketches are flying machines and aeronautical contraptions, such as ornithopters with mechanically driven flapping wings imitating the flight of birds, along with drawings similar to those of a helicopter (Leishman, 2023). At the beginning of the 19th century,  George Cayley , an English nobleman and scientist, proposed various aircraft concepts, including gliders, types of airplanes, and a primitive helicopter (Leishman, 2023). These early models helped pave the way for later flying machines. He also identified some of the fundamentals of flight, namely lift, thrust, weight, and drag.   While others added designs and ideas to flight, the first to fly were the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, in 1903. The flight consisted of a powered biplane aircraft that took off and landed under the control of its pilot. Notably, the Wright brothers designed and built the engine and propellers to power their aircraft, understanding how to integrate the essential components of an airplane and then make it work as a system   (Leishman, 2023). They improved their designs and tested them using a wind tunnel they built. Here, they were able to study the aerodynamics of the wings when shaped differently, ultimately creating a wing and plane that was best suited to fly. For years, the Wright brothers developed their aircraft designs, and by 1908, their aircraft could fly for two hours and cover 100 miles (Leishman, 2023). As time went on, the uses of flight have grown, including warfare, private use, commercial travel, transportation, and more. As time continues on, planes and helicopters continue to be developed, becoming more advanced with respect to usefulness, speed, stealth, etc.   Cars The development and widespread availability of cars as sources of transportation revolutionized the 1900s. The first motorized car was invented by Karl Benz in 1886, with early inventors laying the foundation for the future mass production of cars (Tolentino, 2023b). After significant technological advances, including the steamboat and railways, the next step was the production of personalized vehicles. Early models of car production were mostly independent with each car being carefully created at once before being sold off. It was not until Henry Ford that this model of car production changed. Ford revolutionized the industry by creating an assembly line where parts of a car were all brought together to a common factory mass-produced from there. This sped up the building process and reduced the cost of each car, making them more accessible to anyone who wanted to purchase one. As more cars were on the road, more developed highways and driving infrastructure were required. This radicalization of transportation allowed more people to travel independently and led to the development of extensive road networks, including the U.S. Interstate Highway System. As a whole, the development of cars has transformed daily living and allows for increased travel, trade, and socializing.   Conclusion As society has changed throughout time, so too has transportation. This has served as a driving force in shaping economies, societies, cultures, and more throughout all of history. From the development of the wheel for transporting people and goods, to trains and steamboats for trade, to hot air balloons for beauty, each of these developments has transformed how people live and connect. The growth of transportation has enabled cities to expand, ideas to spread, and cultures to interact in ways previously unimaginable. As technology and in turn transportation continue to change, so too will society, paving the way for future developments and innovations.   Sources history tools. (2024, May 26). The Fascinating History of Hot Air Balloons: From Ancient Sky Lanterns to Modern Marvels - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-fascinating-history-of-hot-air-balloons-from-ancient-sky-lanterns-to-modern-marvels#google_vignette Leishman, J. G. (2023). History of Aircraft & Aviation. Eaglepubs.erau.edu , 2 . https://doi.org/10.15394/eaglepub.2022.1066.n2 Oklahoma Historical Society. (2024). Steamboat Heroine . Www.okhistory.org ; Oklahoma Historical Society. https://www.okhistory.org/learn/steamboat1 Tolentino, C. (2023a, November 2). Who Invented the Wheel? History of the Wheel | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-wheel/ Tolentino, C. (2023b, November 8). Who Invented the Car? History of the Automobile and Motor Vehicles | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-car/ Train History. (2025). History of Railroad - Development of Rail Transport . Trainhistory.net . https://www.trainhistory.net/railway-history/railroad-history/#google_vignette twinkl. (2021). Transportation . Twinkl.com.au . https://www.twinkl.com.au/teaching-wiki/transportation

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout history, laws and policies have evolved to reflect the values of society and address needs that are prevalent within that society. Legal frameworks have shifted from rigid systems based on hierarchy to dynamic, changing models that reflect an ever-changing world. This paper will walk through some of the key historical periods, analyzing the major laws of the time and their societal impacts.   Early Legal Systems and Codified Laws (3000 BCE – 500 CE) One of the earliest known legal systems was the Code of Ur-Nammu, written circa 2100 BCE – 2050 BCE by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu. Calling himself the father of his people, Ur-Nammu encouraged his people to think of themselves as one family and of his laws as the rules of a home (Mark, 2021). Punishments, excluding capital offenses, took the form of fines (Mark, 2021). As a whole, the Code of Ur-Nammu consisted of 57 laws mostly centered on property rights and personal safety. This included guidelines and punishments for murder, robbery, destruction of land and other property, and more. The next significant legal system is the Code of Hammurabi, written in 1754 BCE in Mesopotamia. This introduced the principle of ‘lex talionis,’ or ‘an eye for an eye.’ Unlike the Code of Ur-Nammu, the Code of Hammurabi was much more severe. Some of the key laws included: 1) If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out, 2) If he breaks another man's bone, his bone shall be broken, and 3) If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out (J. J. Mark, 2021). Much of this drastic shift in the framework of laws is represented by the change in the social environment. In earlier Sumerian-Akkadian times, all communities felt themselves to be members of the same family, all equal servants under the eyes of the gods (J. J. Mark, 2021). In such circumstances, disputes could be settled under a collectively accepted value system, where fair payments were more desirable than revenge (J. J. Mark, 2021).  However, when urban citizens rub shoulders with nomads following a different way of life, confrontation must be more tightly regulated, promoting personal safety and property protection for all. In 451-450 BCE in Rome, the Law of the Twelve Tables was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets. These laws represented the beginning of a new approach to law, writing them down and passing them on to future generations. An image of the recreation of the laws of the twelve tables can be seen below: The list of laws under the Twelve Tables mostly covered private law and focused strongly on the relationships between individuals as opposed to individuals versus the government. It focused heavily on agriculture and protecting individual property rights and safety. It also set clear punishments for crimes, as shown by receiving death by burning for those who committed arson. Lesser penalties for property damage were banishment from Rome, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of property (Cartwright, 2016). During this time, laws were modified and replaced as some laws became irrelevant and the need for new laws emerged. The Justinian Code was compiled under Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century CE. This code systematized Roman law and worked to align all decrees, laws, and policies, which had previously been inconsistently regulated. Law variations by region and inconsistent interpretations complicated the legal system, creating confusion during legal proceedings (LegalClarity Team, 2025). Emperor Justinian’s goal was to reform the legal system, restoring the Empire’s glory. His work resulted in the Corpus Juris Civilis, which included the Codex Justinianus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae Constitutiones. Together, these components formed a comprehensive legal framework. The Corpus Juris Civilis addressed the needs of the Roman legal system, the Codex Justinianus compiled imperial constitutions, the Digesta or Pandectae collected legal opinions and interpretations, and the Instititiones served as an educational guide (LegalClarity Team, 2025). This system of laws has provided a long-lasting foundation for the legal system, placing an emphasis on knowledge and education for all involved in the legal process. Medieval Period One of the most well-known societal systems during this time was feudalism. This was a 10th-13th century European system where hierarchy was established and based on a tiered system with kings at the top, followed by other nobles and wealthy landowners, and finally at the bottom, the serfs. Here is an image of a feudal pyramid: This system perpetuated the status quo, where serfs would work lands owned by others for basic conditions like housing and food. They worked, without pay, on the land owned or rented by others to produce food for themselves as well as food and profit for their masters (Cartwright, 2018). This led to the development of feudal contracts and laws generated to protect the serf-lord relationship, ensuring the relationship benefited the lords and prevented the serfs from rising against them. Another important legal framework generated during this time was Canon Law. Canon Law was the body of laws that governed the Christian Church and all of its members. When thinking about Canon Law in modern society, it is difficult to appropriately highlight the emphasis of this framework at the time. During this period, church and state were deeply intertwined with one another. It touched almost every aspect of medieval society, dealing with both religious matters and issues of a purely secular nature (Wei & Winroth, 2022). It involved the regulation of marriages, sorcery, penance, court procedure, Christian relations, and more (Peters & Eichbauer, 2012).   A third major development was the Magna Carta, created in 1215 CE, signed by King John of England.  It aimed to limit the king's power, protect individual rights, and establish foundational principles of governance, and is considered the foundation for the first constitutional government in England (Satheesh, 2023). It limited the power of the king and monarchy, establishing key legal principles such as due process and the right to a fair trial. It introduced provisions protecting individuals from arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, and punishment (Satheesh, 2023). As a whole, the Magna Carta introduced ideas that a ruler’s power should fall within legal and constitutional norms, laying the foundation for future government systems. The Enlightenment Period and the American Revolutionary War During the course of the Enlightenment period, politics, science, and more were radically changed. Enlightenment thinkers in Europe produced numerous books, inventions, laws, scientific discoveries, and more. The Early Enlightenment included key members such as Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and John Locke. Isaac Newton is most known for his work on gravity and other mathematical topics, while John Locke argued that human nature can change and knowledge can be gained through experience (Onion et al., 2009). Later periods of the Enlightenment were characterized by revolutions, i.e., the French and American revolutions. As a whole, the philosophers and deep thinkers of the time generated many ideas, leading to new government systems and the passing of new laws. The emphasis on liberty, equality, and justice set the stage for future civilization to build upon. The American Revolution was a time of drastic change, leading to the creation of the United States. This was a war between England and those living in the 13 colonies, rooted in liberty and the desire to self-rule. Liberty was a central theme as the revolutionaries sought to protect individual rights and freedoms from oppressive British rule. This was highlighted with the publishing of the Declaration of Independence, asserting that all individuals are entitled to ‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.’ The colonists viewed British taxation and policies as acts of tyranny, leading to the popular slogan "No taxation without representation," reflecting their demand for a voice in government decisions ( history-education.org , 2024). As a result of this, equality and self-governance were key goals of the revolution. The concept of popular sovereignty, the idea that government authority comes from the people, was strengthened with the publication of the Declaration of Independence. With the conclusion of the revolution, checks and balances were developed, preventing any one branch or group of people within government from becoming too powerful. Lastly, the publishing of the U.S. Constitution established the basis for rights and protections offered to U.S. citizens. These legal and political innovations, born out of the revolutionary struggle, continue to shape the foundation of the United States today.   Industrial Revolution and Civil Rights Movement The Industrial Revolution was a time of great importance, marking the end of rural society and the shift to a more urban-based environment. With these changes, there were many labor and housing problems that arose. Before the industrial revolution, families typically worked side-by-side on farms or in family shops. This turn to urban living led to the rise of factory work, yielding the end of family working and the rise of separating home from work. All members of the family might now work in different areas, men and sons in factories, with women and daughters in other service roles. Despite their importance to the industry’s output, women and children were paid very little and were regularly expected to work 16-hour days (Wilkinson, 2024). Their jobs were perceived as less skilled, although the working conditions were sometimes equally dangerous (Wilkinson, 2024). As time went on, many went on strike and spoke out about the harsh working and living conditions that were experienced. This led to labor laws being passed, limiting child labor, the hours one could work a day, wages, and many other aspects of working. Many of these laws have laid the infrastructure for labor laws today.             Another prominent movement during this time was the civil rights movement. The Civil Rights Act, passed in 1964, was a comprehensive piece of U.S. legislation that aimed to end discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. There are many sections to it, with some of the most important being titles I, IV, and VII. Title I guaranteed equal voting rights for all, removing biased procedures that disproportionately impacted minorities. Title IV called for the desegregation of schools, which was a popular topic during the time. Title VII banned discrimination by trade unions, schools, or employers involved in business with the federal government, pairing with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce this (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019). In all, much of the legislation and marches during this time led to the passing of legislation, although many facets of these laws are still being worked on today.             Many other movements took place during this time. This includes the women’s suffrage (right to vote) movement, leading to the passing of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote. The Americans with Disabilities Act was also passed, protecting the rights of individuals with disabilities and ensuring they have the right to employment. A third major movement was the passing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights passed by the United Nations, establishing global human rights standards. These are not all of the movements that took place, as this was a time of significant social justice reform and yielded lasting change for decades/centuries to follow. Modern Developments (21st Century)   With legal systems continuing to evolve, much of the modern emphasis is on environmental and social justice law. As the global world and community have changed through time, so too has the need for new types of legislation. With the rise of artificial tools, the need for individual security and privacy has risen, leading to the passing of many laws, including the General Data Protection Regulation passed by the European Union in 2018. Another rising concern is centered around the climate and regulating the amount of greenhouse gas emissions every year. Climate legislation, such as the Clean Air Act and Paris Agreement, have established both country-based and international commitments to reduce carbon emissions. In the United States, the Affordable Care Act (2010) expanded healthcare access and consumer protections. Legal recognition of LGBTQ+ rights culminated in the landmark Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) ruling, which legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. Many other laws and policies have been passed during the 21st century, with many more inevitably being passed in the future, highlighting the adaptability of the legal system as it evolves with society. Conclusion The evolution of laws and policies throughout the course of time reflects the concurrent change in society and its beliefs. From the earliest known laws and legal codes to modern legislative policies, legal frameworks have evolved. Key milestones, including the Code of Hammurabi, the Twelve Tables, the Magna Carta, the Enlightenment period, labor laws, and more, have shaped society as we know it today and continue to influence the development of law. The adaptability of the legal system is crucial for maintaining a fair and just society, and as new challenges emerge, the history of past actions will continue to serve as a foundation to build upon. Sources Cartwright, M. (2016, April 11). Twelve Tables . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Twelve_Tables/ Cartwright, M. (2018, November 22). Feudalism . World History Encyclopedia; World History Publishing. https://www.worldhistory.org/Feudalism/ Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Civil Rights Act | Summary, Facts, & History. In Encyclopædia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964 history-education.org . (2024, June 18). Key ideas of the American Revolution . History Education. https://history-education.org/2024/06/18/key-ideas-of-the-american-revolution/ LegalClarity Team. (2025, January 21). What Was Justinian’s Code and Why Is It Important in Law?  LegalClarity. https://legalclarity.org/what-was-justinians-code-and-why-is-it-important-in-law/ Mark, J. (2021, October 26). Code of Ur-Nammu . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Ur-Nammu/ Mark, J. J. (2021, June 24). Code of Hammurabi . World History Encyclopedia; World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Hammurabi/ Onion, A., Sullivan, M., Mullen , M., & Zapata, C. (2009, December 16). Enlightenment Period: Thinkers & Ideas | HISTORY . HISTORY. https://www.history.com/articles/enlightenment Peters, E., & Eichbauer, M. H. (2012). Canon Law . https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780195396584-0033 Satheesh, G. S. (2023). The Magna Carta: Origins, Significance, and Influence on English Law. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews , 10 (1). Wei, J. C., & Winroth, A. (2022). Medieval Canon Law: Introduction  (A. Winroth & J. C. Wei, Eds.). Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-medieval-canon-law/medieval-canon-law-introduction/B5DD73317FF615F2E6D98F5AA938F35A Wilkinson, F. (2024, November 15). Industrialization, Labor, and Life . National Geographic. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/industrialization-labor-and-life/

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Education holds a pivotal role in society and has undergone significant changes over time. It has evolved from an informal, community-based structure to one driven by technology. These changes reflect the changes of society at large, with new advancements in communication, technology, etc. being developed. Early forms of education were verbal, sharing oral traditions and drawings. As time went on, classrooms were developed containing laptops and other smart technology. Alongside the new technology, new methods of teaching have been designed to address a diverse set of students. This paper will dive into the major changes in education over time and how technology and educational styles have changed through the ages.   Early Mesopotamia In Early Mesopotamian society, Sumerian temple schools represented the earliest organized educational institutions. These schools, often led by priests or senior scribes, aimed to share knowledge and cultural traditions with all children growing up in the area. Essential pillars of education involved written language and basic mathematical concepts, as both were viewed as essential for a temple to be properly run. Scribal training was a major part of education during the time. Students were comprised of young boys between 5 to 10 years old entering the school where they spent long periods of time, typically 10-20 years, copying dictations of cuneiform writing, commercial texts, hymns, and other important writings (history tools, 2024). Priests and students alike would study religious rituals, laws, and other key writings or proceedings of the time in efforts to promote continuous learning.   Sumerian temple schools left behind an abundance of evidence of their teaching, largely in the form of cuneiform tablets. Historians estimate that 80 percent of surviving tablets contain exercises teaching language mastery, 15 percent relate to mathematics, 5 percent law, and 0.5 percent astronomy (history tools, 2024). Many tablets also included completed student work with corrections and grades from instructors. This provides insight into early educational models and what was viewed as important information to teach.   Although there are observed differences in educational materials, many of the early education materials show unity, particularly with regard to religion. With education tightly connected to temple-learning, many of the schools were heavily influenced or directly managed by religious officials. Additionally, much of the learning was geared towards preparing students to serve in specific financial or scribal roles, creating future government and religious leaders.   Ancient Egypt In Ancient Egypt, education was structured and aimed to develop writing skills, mathematics, and religious knowledge. The system was largely set up to prepare students for roles in bureaucracy, priesthood, or other pivotal roles in society. School systems were broken down into two main categories: scribal and palace schools. Scribal school was a very prestigious form of education in Egypt and was reserved for scribes. Scribes would take classes, learning to read and write in hieroglyphics. Scribal schools were typically partnered with temples and government buildings where the students would be taught math, writing, and other necessary skills, before starting work in the connected temple or government office (The Archaeologist, 2025). Religion was a major part of the education system, where priests would pass down ways to perform rituals and how to interpret texts. This allowed information on moral instruction, the gods, and the afterlife to be passed from generation to generation. While not entirely separate from scribal schools, Egyptian palace schools were reserved for the elite noble children. Here, students would focus on hieroglyphic writing, mathematics, and priestly knowledge. Students contributed to community life through daily chores and labor, learning a variety of skills that would be useful in both their future daily and professional lives.   Ancient Greece In Ancient Greece, education was prioritized to produce good citizens as opposed to being solely available for the wealthy and elite. Children were trained in music, art, literature, science, math, and politics (Donn, n.d.). In cities like Athens, at 6 years old, boys would go to school, learning to read and write, play instruments, recite poetry, debate and give speeches, and study math and science. After high school, they would go off to military school and learn how to be soldiers. In all, it would take around 20 years for boys to make it through all of the allotted schooling. Schooling for girls was different, and they did not attend any formal educational settings. If their mother could read and write, daughters were taught how to do the same, along with learning how to cook, sew, and run a household (Donn, n.d.).   Schooling in Sparta was very different from the rest of Greece. In Sparta, education was solely in place to produce a powerful army. Spartan-born boys would enter military schools around 6 years old, where they learned how to read, write, and most importantly, fight. School was very tough, aimed at toughening the boys into war-ready individuals. They were often beaten, starved, and isolated in attempts to turn everything into a form of battle. Unlike the rest of Greece, Spartan girls would go to school, learning to be warriors. School was not as brutal as for the boys, but girls would still regularly wrestle, fist fight, and practice handling weapons. The Spartans believed that strong women produced strong babies, and when needed, women would assist in defending the city and their homes (Donn, n.d.).   Ancient Rome Roman education was different from prior civilizations. Ancient Rome did not have any official schools set up, and education relied on hiring private tutors or paying tuition fees for private schools. Wealthy families employed private tutors to teach their children at home, while less well-off children were taught in groups. This led to vastly different conditions for both students and teachers. Teachers who taught wealthy students were able to devote more attention to the individual student, along with typically having better access to educational tools. On the other hand, those teaching poorer children were able to devote less time per student and typically did not have extra access to educational materials. As a result, educational quality varied, as not all students received the same instruction or had equal access to tutoring services. Structured schools of the time relied solely on tuition fees paid by the parents of the students enrolled. Parents paid the school fees in installments at each term's end; however, if parents lacked the money to pay or were unhappy with their child’s progress, teachers would be left financially vulnerable (McCormack, 2023). This created an entirely new set of challenges for teachers, as they not only had to navigate poor teaching conditions but also ensure proper funding. There were two types of teachers during this time: the litterator (primary teacher) required no special training and made very little money per student, while the Grammaticus (more advanced teacher) made around four times the money per student. This divide further drove the inequitable access to education for students and the uneven working conditions that teachers experienced at the time. As a whole, students had to be proactive about their education. In order to be engaged during sessions, students would need to bring several different materials to foster learning. This included waxed tablets for writing on, sponges for erasing, knives for sharpening reeds, reeds for writing, a case for carrying all materials, and anything else the student may desire (McCormack, 2023). For the most part, students made do with whatever was available to them, whether that was broken pieces of pottery, wood, sheets sewn together, or anything else they could gain access to. In all, students and teachers alike had to work together to create environments where education could take place.   Middle Ages The Middle Ages were a period of time that experienced many setbacks, with education being something largely overlooked. For many who wanted to receive an education, they had to go to monasteries or cathedral schools. Boys who were set to become knights would be fostered in other knights’ homes, learning their martial skills, and noble girls would either receive instruction from nuns or tutors in the home (Cybulskie, 2023). Throughout school, students mostly learned grammar, logic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Like earlier periods, students would take notes, primarily using wax tablets. With limited access to tablets, students would have to memorize large portions of the information taught to them. This led to mostly oral exams, allowing students to practice speaking while being tested on key information.   When students were finished with school, most would either move directly into a career or pursue further education at a university. Universities offered courses and information not otherwise available, including law and medicine. This standard is observed to this day, with law and medical school being separate from undergraduate programs. Rather than being the large buildings universities are now, they were formerly gatherings of people coming together to learn from individual scholars (Cybulskie, 2023). Throughout Europe, there were several influential universities that students could attend. Most notable is Oxford University. As universities grew, problems arose in many towns and cities where the universities existed. Non-student citizens often did not enjoy students coming in and taking over their cities, leading to disputes and fights. Cambridge University was created as a result of one of these fights when students from Oxford left the city after the falling-out, creating their own school (Cybulskie, 2023). As a whole, as universities grew, people living in cities grew to be more accepting of the students, reducing the turbulent relationship that had existed early on.   Renaissance With the Renaissance being a period of rebirth, education experienced many developments. Building upon the work of the Middle Ages, this period began the expansion of the liberal arts degree, comprised of the trivium and quadrivium (Egan, 2019). The trivium was focused on grammar, with students learning the nature of language and how words impact society. The quadrivium was centered around mathematics and other applied forms of knowledge, all of which were aimed at giving students the skills to succeed after school.   While the basic infrastructure of education remained the same during this period, the major development was the number of new findings and the amount of information that could be taught. Earlier schools were limited by what was known of the world, but the Renaissance, with all of its brilliant minds, developed large amounts of information that could be taught. Da Vinci and others diving into the human body and its composition, Galileo making key scientific findings, and countless others adding to mathematics, medicine, philosophy, etc. This created a large well of new information that could now be taught to students, opening new career pathways and starting new courses that could be taken.   Modern Education As time passed onward after the Renaissance, the desire for knowledge and discoveries continued. With this, new teaching methods have been developed to suit the needs of all different types of students. Today, interactive learning technologies have taken over classrooms with teachers encouraging students to use tablets, online software, and other platforms (Kiplington, 2023). Online learning has grown every year, with a wide variety of programs being offered without individuals having to leave their homes. For example, individuals can obtain Associate's degrees, Bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees, other professional degrees and certificates, and even PhDs entirely online. This has changed the mode of information transfer as students no longer need to be present, listening to a speaker to gain knowledge. Instead, many can watch recorded videos, perform Google searches, and more, without ever having to speak face-to-face with a teacher. With this, testing methods have evolved from mostly oral exams to online exams and written papers. Additionally, portfolios for creative projects and presentations continue to be a popular form of assessing a student’s knowledge and understanding of a particular topic.   Today, in many areas around the globe, both boys and girls attend school at a young age, sharing classrooms and learning the same material. The standardization of education plans has also helped ensure that students in different areas are learning similar information, setting them up for success in their careers or at university. Additionally, educational programs like special education and continuing education allow for new methods of learning that were not previously available. Special education emphasizes that all students, regardless of ability, have a right to education, promoting a more inclusive education system (Kiplington, 2023). Continuing education fosters lifelong learning, with adults being encouraged to regularly learn new skills and continuously become the best version of themselves that they can be.   Conclusion Throughout the ages, education has evolved from informal settings where priests and tutors facilitated teaching to complex, technology-driven models of learning. As civilizations made new advancements and discoveries, education was regularly updated to reflect those new understandings. This has led to the continuous adaptation of education. Historical developments, technological innovations, and educational reforms have expanded access, diversified teaching methods, and redefined the purpose of education. As societies move into the future and continue to make discoveries, education will change with it, becoming what is needed for society to continue advancing.   Sources Cybulskie, D. (2023, June 5). Education in the Middle Ages . Medievalists.net . https://www.medievalists.net/2023/06/education-middle-ages/ Donn, L. (n.d.). Education in Ancient Greece - Ancient Greece for Kids . Greece.mrdonn.org . https://greece.mrdonn.org/education.html#google_vignette Egan, P. (2019, February 1). Renaissance Education: Looking to the Past to Chart a Course for Education Today • Educational Renaissance . Educational Renaissance. https://educationalrenaissance.com/2019/02/01/renaissance-education-looking-to-the-past-to-chart-a-course-for-education-today/ history tools. (2024, June 24). Tracing the Origins of Education: Where Did the First Schools Emerge? - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/school/tracing-the-origins-of-education-where-did-the-first-schools-emerge#google_vignette Kiplington, T. (2023, July 23). What has changed in education in the last 100 years?   Waysideparents.org . https://waysideparents.org/what-has-changed-in-education-in-the-last-100-years McCormack, L. K. C. (2023, April 24). Roman Education . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2224/roman-education/ The Archaeologist. (2025, March 7). The Role of Education in Ancient Egypt . The Archaeologist. https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/the-role-of-education-in-ancient-egypt#google_vignette

The SASA Archaeological Terms and Translations project serves as a free student resource. It is an easy access list of terms and phrases that are common in archaeology and academia. Whether you're deep in an excavation trench, decoding ancient languages or even just reading journal articles, knowing the right terminology can make or break your understanding of the past. That's why SASA translation guides are so important in making archaeology more accessible for students, researchers and professionals across the globe. PDF's available for download under SASA > Resources > Archaeological Vocabulary What Is the SASA Archaeological Terms and Translations Project? Designed especially for students and professionals, it offers concise translations and definitions of excavation and research terms (meaning those that show up constantly in scholarly articles, site reports, and fieldwork). You can download these guides under Resources > Archaeological Vocabulary on the SASA website What’s in These Translation Guides? Each language guide contains hundreds of commonly used terms, sorted into categories such as: Surface/soil types Excavation features Finds and materials Drawing and measuring vocabulary Excavation tools Key adjectives and verbs Numismatic terminology Plant and animal species Some terms come with short definitions, especially for jargon or context-specific meanings. The goal is clarity and usability, perfect for brushing up before a dig or while translating a site report. Available Languages Version 1.0 of the project offers PDFs in: Modern Greek German French Italian Arabic Spanish Hindi Japanese And now, SASA is proud to announce two new additions: Mandarin Chinese Turkish Future Plans SASA plans to expand these tools with additional languages in the near future. We welcome feedback from the public on how to improve this resource, and we will periodically update these files. Please e-mail Access Team leader, Dr. John Haberstroh ( jhaberstroh@saveancientstudies.org ) for any comments or questions, or if you would like to contribute to this project.

This week, we bring you the third installment of the SASA Research Blog Series #1: Social Media. Titled Social Media Theory and Strategies , this post addresses some theories and strategies surrounding the usage of social media by organizations. Last week’s post dissected the barriers to social media use in the humanities; it was concluded that whilst tangible obstacles to the utilization of social media do exist, social media is gradually cementing itself as a mainstay and key player in the realm of academia and is adopting a role that is not to usurp but to supplement conventional papers, lectures and emails. However, it is of the utmost importance that one examines the manner in which social media is used by academic organizations such as SASA in order to assess how it can reach its full potential in regards to efficacy. Whilst social media certainly has a place in the academic realm, according to academics like Brady Lund, “posting alone is not sufficient to acquire a useful audience; rather, engagement (reactions and comments) is necessary to see substantial change.” An organization may well establish spaces on social media to represent its brand, advertise itself, and disseminate educational material, but, without two-way interaction between creator and consumer, the endeavor becomes largely superficial. Engagement is paramount for the objectives of any organization. What engagement is, and what it means for SASA and other non-profits, must first be examined. Engagement refers to ‘actions that reflect and measure how much your audience interacts with your content’ (Jamia Kenan, 2022). It can be in the form of likes, comments, and shares. Learning how engagement can be garnered is important for organizations to be able to use social media tactically by prioritizing certain platforms, formats and mediums. The requirements for engagement on the behalf of the consumer are illustrated in Petri Hallikainen’s five category model, which shows the values of content that influence consumer choice– essentially, what types of content motivate people to engage. An equilibrium should be cultivated between these values, preferably in a tested and curated combination for maximal consumer engagement (Hallikainen 2015). The five category model consists of: functional value; social value; emotional value; epistemic value; conditional value. The functional value denotes the capacity of social media to provide functionality, such as providing ease of access for the consumer. The social value is the value a consumer receives from associating with a network of different groups of people, a common example being networking opportunities between geographically or conceptually distant communities. The emotional value indicates evocation of certain feelings in the consumer, such as creating positive or negative emotional associations. The epistemic value fulfills the cycle of curiosity and knowledge acquisition– especially important for academic organizations that aim to spread awareness such as SASA. The conditional value applies to special situations such as birthday offers or “VIP” content, which can make an organization feel more personable and relatable. A combination of these particular values are what creators and organizations should strive for, as they encourage continued user consumption and long-term engagement. This model is further supported by a survey taken by SASA of 267 undergraduates. The study pointed to three ultimate factors that predict a user’s time spent on Facebook: expressive information sharing, entertainment value, and social interaction. These factors align with the five values of Hallikainen’s model, and highlight the importance of these elements in inspiring engagement on social media platforms. Companies that use social media must thus appeal to these elements and values in their social media practices to garner any sort of two-way engagement. For example, posts that acquire the most engagement include photo content and quality, calm coloring, lower contrast and a professional quality. This indicates that “aesthetics” play a significant role in engagement. Visual content that feels personalized and human, rather than clinical and mechanical, is important as “promotions [are] not enough to engender engagement, but rather, engagement [requires] companies to make things personal” (Brian G Smith, Tiffany Derville Gallicano, 2015). Studies find that posts using human faces, natural settings, and positive emotions perform better than those without. An organization’s efforts to enhance social media practices must also be able to distinguish which mediums are superior. Studies have shown that video posts encourage active engagement through users commenting their own opinions, while photo posts stimulate a more passive engagement through likes. This suggests that solely photo-posts are becoming outdated, especially owing to the emergence of platforms such as TikTok. Organizations might consider accommodating this shift by creating more video content. However, this is still a growing field, with conflicting studies, such as that referenced in the Media Richness Theory: posts with photo content stimulated higher engagement compared to video posts (Kim et al, 2015). This lack of clarity and irresolution complicates matters for academic departments that wish to tentatively enter the already complex world of social media. The complexity of such elements points to how so many academics and institutional departments might find themselves unable to make the correct content to engage users and consumers– which in their case, are young, hip students who are likely to already be well-versed in technology and social media. It is clear that, to ensure online longevity, organizations and academic entities that wish to create content must adapt to the advancements made in social media. They should aim to create content that incites personal connections in a broad audience, and try to cultivate a network for those who have engaged with their content. Research by Emma Renz Written by Mia Felt Edited by Yuna Kim References A Model of Social Media Engagement: User Profiles, Gratifications, and Experiences Universities engaging social media users: an investigation of quantitative relationships between universities’ Facebook followers/interactions and university attributes Terms of engagement: Analyzing public engagement with organizations through social media Social Media Engagement Theory Why People Use Social Media Platforms: Exploring the Motivations and Consequences of Use The Role of Social Media Content Format and Platform in Users' Engagement Behavior Public engagement with nonprofit organizations on Facebook Effective Social Media Engagement for Nonprofits: What Matters? Visual Representations in Organizational Instagram Photos and the Public’s Responses: Focusing on Nonprofit Organizations

This week, we bring to you the second post of SASA Research Blog Series #1. The intention of Series #1 ( Social Media Utilization for Engagement of Humanities-Based Non-Profit Audiences: Opportunities, Models, and Barriers ) was to develop research that may assist evidence-based strategy for non-profit organizations and other audiences intending to maximize their online presence. Studies have been categorized into posters according to subtopics relevant to SASA, from broad introductions to specific approaches such as platform-dependent content. This post (2 of 5) is titled Barriers to Social Media Use in the Humanities . The first post of the series examined the benefits of social media use in humanities-oriented non-profits. However, a successful online presence is not always easy to achieve. The general impression in the media is that there are widespread reservations towards the intersection of social media and academic institutions: “Everything that social media communication represents- immediacy, impermanence, collectivism- is contrary and harmful to the thoughtfulness, permanence and individualistic experiences necessary to humanities discourse” (Adamek, 2010). There is a gatekeeping stigma, with emotional factors involving sacrality in the field of humanities, and personal and institutional reputation and values. Further factors include policy conflicts, pedagogical issues, privacy concerns, all of which are complex structures that have and will continue to require years of discussion, proposal and approval. After all, discussion and education in the humanities require room for nuance and complex thinking, which are elements not often associated with social media. Though these many barriers may sound discouraging, instead of focusing on whether social media should have a place in the humanities at all, the focal point should be on how scholars can overcome said barriers and connect with a broader, more accessible audience. Social media should complement rather than compete with traditional media forms. Though social media might not be able to adequately compete with the research forms that have traditionally shaped the humanities, it can still complement them. For example, social media content can heavily influence consumers’-- and thus students’-- views towards organizations and societal structures (Smith and Gallicano, 2015). If academic institutions can create a social media-incorporated curriculum that balances education and entertainment values, dense materials of history, philosophy, and more might be presented in a more accessible and relevant manner. When it comes to nonprofits and organizations in the humanities, there are also complex elements of engagement to consider for effective social media usage. Organizations that either exclusively post about themselves or post unrelated content are “bemoaned” by millennials, but companies whose content is “interactive or funny” – as opposed to strictly “information-based” – are more appealing (Smith and Gallicano). Consumers associate engagement with “using the company,” and they are more likely to follow a company if they can get something in return, whether promotional (i.e., coupons and special offers) or pro-social (i.e., the satisfaction that comes with supporting a social mission with which you agree). Studies also show that social networking tools are increasingly being used between academics as well, to “enhance scholarly communication by strengthening relationships, facilitating collaboration among peers, publishing and sharing research products, and discussing research topics in open and public formats” (Manca and Ranieri). These tools are enabling academics to more easily connect and exchange information with others. Facebook, for instance, is popular among scholars as a tool to keep in touch with colleagues. Non-profit organizations, too, have been using Facebook to engage stakeholders. After all, in order to better involve supporters, it is important to provide contact information such as an e-mail address to an organizational representative (71% of non-profits) or an organizational phone number (9%). Further crucial points of contact include message boards (44%), current volunteer opportunity lists (13%), and of course, a site for donations (13%). Today, many teachers and professors have positive attitudes toward integrating social media into teaching, but do not have tangible plans due to low returns compared to risk, and incompatibility with current practices. Higher perceived risk and external pressure serve as a barrier to adopting social media usage in an educational context, though Stefania Manca and Maria Ranieri found that over 40% of faculty at an Italian university used one or more tools for teaching on at least a monthly basis. As attitudes begin to shift, the future of social media use in the humanities seems optimistic. While there is still plenty of room for development, social media is gradually securing its role in the realm of academia, both in classrooms and in non-profits. The goal, however, should not be to replace the conventional papers, lectures, and e-mails that facilitate communication in the humanities but to supplement it. Especially in the field of Ancient Studies, which is heavily rooted in traditionalism, the transition to social media will not be easy, but understanding its barriers will prove to be vital when creating content to increase engagement. Research Performed By Emma Renz Written By Justin Rosenthal Edited By Yuna Kim References Social Media Flaws and the Humanities Researching Social Media in the Digital Humanities Terms of engagement: Analyzing public engagement with organizations through social media Social Media Flaws and the Humanities Networked Scholarship and Motivations for Social Media use in Scholarly Communication Facebook and the others. Potentials and obstacles of Social Media for teaching in higher education The value of social media: are universities successfully engaging their audience? Engaging stakeholders through social networking: How nonprofit organizations are using Facebook Use of Social Networking Tools for Informal Scholarly Communication in Humanities and Social Sciences Disciplines

We are excited to announce the beginning of the SASA Research Series! The Research Series will present different issues in the field of Ancient Studies, examined by our very own SASA Research Team. This inaugural post is the first of eight posts, all part of Series #1, titled Social Media Utilization for Engagement of Humanities Based Non-Profit Audiences: Opportunities, Models, and Barriers . The intention of Series #1 was to develop research that may assist evidence-based strategy for non-profit organizations and other audiences intending to maximize their online presence. The researcher has categorized the studies into posters according to subtopics relevant to SASA, from broad introductions to specific approaches such as platform-dependent content. This post covers the first subtopic of the series: Benefits of Social Media Use in Humanities Oriented NonProfits. With the growth of social media and its platforms, there has been an upward trend in social engagement. As a result, disagreement over the use of social media in the field of humanities has become a topic we cannot ignore. Both popular blogs and scholarly writings suggest that professionals in the field of humanities aim to preserve a certain sacredness or complexity by rejecting the use of social media, which inherently upholds values that at best differ from those in the field. However, the result is that the general population is not sufficiently reached, resulting in a lack of engagement with topics and discussions. In the cases of topics and discussions that require popular support, such as efforts to rescue a heritage site, this lack of engagement can be largely detrimental. A balance is required between existing research forms and new ones in order to successfully reach the current world. Social media has the capability to capture audiences in a more engaging way than traditional methods. Classic approaches to studying humanities solely rely on absorbing information even though new forms of research exist such as microblogging, discussion forums, and museum iPads. These methods provide individuals with a more hands-on experience to properly comprehend and interact with presented information. Many professors, scholars, and experts have acknowledged the power these methods hold, especially in the case of university libraries and museums that aim to increase or create digital repositories. There are flaws when bringing humanities to social media, as there is with most everything. It is commonly discussed that social media is working to create a hive mind, where everyone who is engaging with online platforms is being fed the same information and follow one way of thinking. Openness is required in an open-sharing platform. If audiences can utilize this mindset, then they can further their education by being able to question information given at face value. Our organization, among others, have conducted multiple studies to truly understand who is using social media and what those platforms are being used for. Results show that social media use is still rather limited and restricted. Academics are not inclined to integrate devices into their practices for several reasons. These reasons include cultural resistance, pedagogical issues or institutional constraints. Many teachers have a positive outlook on the use of social media for educational purposes, but do not have a plan to start the initiative. Our study reports the results of a survey addressed to the Italian academic staff, with the aim of identifying the uses of Social Media in the field of university teaching practices. The response rate was 10.5%, corresponding to 6139. With higher perceived risk and external pressure, there is a lower likelihood of adopting social media usage in an educational context. Analyses of data tested which socio-demographic variables mostly affected frequency of use, and the relationships between motivations, ways of use, barriers to use and the scientific discipline. (elaborate on these risks and pressure)Without a collective beginning to start the move of social media usage for education, traditional academia, particularly the world of Ancient Studies, will struggle to embrace this side to technological advancements. Social media can serve many purposes not only for research purposes, but as a way to form connections, network, and engage others. It is important to recognize that despite downfalls, a useful approach for the purpose of preservation and strengthening of the humanities can be identified and accepted. Research performed by Emma Renz, Research Team Spring 2023 Intern Written and edited by Erin Carlson and Yuna Kim References Taking social media seriously in the humanities The Value of Social Media for Small Businesses Networked Scholarship and Motivations for Social Media use in Scholarly Communication Social media for digital humanities and community engagement Social Media Effectiveness for Public Engagement: Examples of Small Nonprofits A social network analysis of Twitter: Mapping the digital humanities community

Virtual Engagement Models in the Humanities This week, we bring you the fourth installment of the SASA Research Blog Series #1: Social Media. Titled Virtual Engagement Models in the Humanities , this post addresses some methods and strategies through which the fields of humanities and ancient studies might better employ social media as a tool for engagement and education. In this post, we shift the focus from specific social media content to a broad range of virtual platforms. When it comes to humanities-based nonprofits, there exists a plethora of ways to engage audiences with the use of technology, even beyond the Twitter updates and mass emails to which we are all accustomed. These strategies enable more people to actively take part in discussions surrounding the humanities, bridging the wide gap between scholars and the general public. The first virtual engagement model uses social media in a rather distinctive manner: microblogging. According to Claire Ross, microblogging is a form of digital communication that can occur in academic conferences and organizational settings, in which individuals take notes, share resources, and convey real-time reactions via backchannels like Twitter (Ross, 2011). It extends commentary and discussion without the need for interruptions, complementing sharings and encouraging participation. For instance, if an attendee of an event had a question but was uncomfortable asking it out loud, the attendee could instead raise the question on Twitter using a conference-specific hashtag. Though participation through microblogging does remain low, it nonetheless is an available tool that can help individuals connect with colleagues during conferences. Another model comes from the rising popularity of interactive platforms in museums, most notably iPads. These devices can host discussion boards about exhibits, providing visitors the opportunity to write comments and engage with other visitors. They create an individualized experience that will be different each time and help visitors form personal connections with the affiliated material. The concept of museum iPads might, at first glance, seem limited to in-person experiences. However, the experience can be emulated quite easily through online discussion boards. Interactive platforms promote community interaction, which is important for humanities-based non-profits because they subsequently facilitate cooperative interpretations of humanities content. Findings are more accessible, and individual narratives are constructed. Especially for object-based content, the latter can be incredibly important, as the “unpredictability of multiple narrative forms [...] introduces new considerations to the process by which [organizations] convey object and collection interpretation” (Ross, 2011). As such, the collaborative creation of narratives can lead to independent analyses that are more creative, personal, and engaging than any traditional approaches. The final model is crowdsourcing. This strategy involves enlisting a large number of people to work on a project, typically remotely. It is an effective way to engage the general public in humanities-oriented initiatives, such as transcription projects. A new audience can help transcribe historical manuscript papers, creating a temporary structured community and allowing more people to take part in an endeavor seemingly closed off to non-specialists. Virtual platforms enable everyday people to make use of exciting opportunities that reward both the non-profit itself as well as the individual. Whether projects backed by crowdsourcing attract starry-eyed students eager to gain more experience in a field that interests them, working adults who want to rekindle a passion for the humanities, or restless retirees looking to occupy their time productively, there exists a broad audience whom humanities-based projects on the internet can bring together. Digital humanities open up a whole new realm of possibilities for community engagement, specifically regarding accessibility and enjoyment. Microblogging connects colleagues and complements sharings, discussion boards increase interaction and foster a personal connection to associated material, and group transcription projects via crowdsourcing help projects progress at a faster rate and close the gap between the general public and scholars. While the internet is an excellent means to spread the word about the current goals and projects of one’s non-profit organization, it can be used for far more than just updates; it can get the public to actively take part in projects, too. Engagement is key for nonprofits, and the more approachable and immersive a project is, the better each participant’s overall takeaway will be. References Chapter 2: Social media for digital humanities and community engagement

Facebook as a Community Building and Marketing Tool Facebook has remained, since its debut in 2003, a formidable social networking giant; boasting nearly 3 billion monthly active users, it is a locus for discussion on topics in the media, pop culture and politics. Despite the looming popularity of rival networking sites uprearing their heads from the murky depths of the internet, Facebook has retained a relatively strong hold on its user base. It continues to exhibit promising growth, with its total number of users each month in the 3 months leading up to April 2023 increasing by roughly 26 million (0.9%). It is thus evident that Facebook is a key component in the theme of engagement that has been explored throughout this series, continually proving itself to provide its users with relevant content that is frequently interacted with, building network links for creators. Facebook insights recorded in June 2021 found that the typical global Facebook user aged 18+, in the prior 30 days, had liked a median of 11 Facebook posts, left a median of 5 comments on Facebook posts, and clicked or tapped on a median of 12 Facebook ads (including sponsored posts). This proves that even almost 20 years later, Facebook remains a hub for interconnectivity, ‘providing an environment that provokes users to have active engagement behaviour’. (1) However, it is also important to dissect Facebook’s role in the realm of academics, specifically in regard to the humanities departments of schools and universities. Facebook ‘provides timely updates on social and cultural issues and current trends’ (2), making its presence in the humanities all the more significant. Humanities subjects such as history are constantly-evolving, latent spaces, where new research means that they are constantly being knocked out of stasis by new discoveries and schools of thought. Platforms such as Facebook lend themselves to this fluidity, especially through their propensity to cultivate and host academic communities where information and opinions can be shared, contributing to general scholarship. In previous posts, the importance of community to engagement has been discussed, notably how it maximises engagement through the fostering of groups of people with common interest where passion and resources can be shared- Facebook therefore is the perfect case study for how community begets engagement, with its ‘Groups’ function allowing scholars to share information and resources with each other and network amongst themselves, as well as allowing for prospective students interested in the humanities to interact with scholarship they otherwise would not have access to. It can therefore be seen to be integral for humanities departments across the world and for the future of enrolment in humanities degrees. In order to maximise Facebook’s utility, it is important for academic organisations and departments to understand intimately and take advantage of Facebook’s algorithmic and technical workings. This can best be summarised as ‘best practices’, of which there are six major components: The first is user generated content. Studies have shown that content shared by the employees of a brand receives 8x the engagement of brand shared content, with a considerable 85% of consumers finding this user-generated content more influential and personal than brand produced content. It is thus necessary for organisations and companies to directly involve employees in content creation and sharing, as engagement is more likely to be generated if social network users can interact with the individual rather than a company or organisation that may seem to them too inaccessible and impersonal. Employees should share content themselves, therefore, in order to better appeal to audiences who feel alienated by brand-generated content. The second component is the use of images in posting; this is likely to generate more engagement than merely text-based content which does not appeal to users of social networking sites who often use these platforms to be visually stimulated. Psychological nudges can also influence Facebook users to interact with posts; by giving audiences direct instructions, such as to respond to a prompt, or to click, comment, and like, they are more inclined to do so, thus furthering the reach of content by appealing to the Facebook algorithm as the content generates more ‘likes’. Time of day is another important factor companies and organisations must consider when posting. People most often check their social media accounts during ‘downtime’, like whilst on break from work and whilst commuting. Rather than posting at times when people are unlikely to view content, leading content to stagnate and eventually fall out of favour with the Facebook algorithm, creators should post at noon and 7pm. As more people are likely to be online during these hours, they are more likely to see the freshly-posted content. They will thus be more likely to interact with it as it is new and active, maximising engagement. Refining which type of organisational messaging a creator uses via Facebook is another way through which best practices can be exercised. The above chart based on an analysis of 1000 updates from organisations on the Nonprofit Times 100 list indicates that individuals prefer dialogic and mobilising messages from non-profits on Facebook (3). This means that companies and organisations are more likely to be successful with engagement if their posting and messaging includes calls to action, motivating users to interact and like, and not necessarily with posting alluding to events and promotion, which often goes ignored. The final variable of ‘best practices’ influencing engagement on Facebook is frequency of posting. A study carried out by Buddy Media in 2011 found that pages that only post once or twice a day receive 40% higher engagement compared to pages with more than three posts a day. This is indicative of an upper limit for posting, and implies that creators must be careful to monitor post frequency so that they do not overwhelm followers to the point of disinterest and disengagement. Whilst these best practices indicate that, if used correctly, Facebook is an effective social networking platform for organisations, notably those in the realm of humanities. However, this does not mean the absence of significant drawbacks that may point to other platforms as being a better host for humanities organisations. One predominant drawback of Facebook is its monetary demands. Peruta and Shields, in their content analysis of Facebook post types and formats, find that organic reach- being the spread of social media content which has not been paid for or promoted- is very poor on Facebook, with it hovering at only 2.11% for pages with over 500,000 (4). This makes organic reach negligible or even obsolete in its entirety for pages with less than half a million followers, which encompasses many university and humanities organisations’ pages. This makes Facebook a ‘pay to play’ network, where Facebook brand page managers must pay to promote or ‘boost’ their posts to reach a larger percentage of their audience (5). This demand for monetary investment as a prerequisite for Facebook makes it less than ideal for smaller humanities organisations and especially departments in schools and universities, which are already deprived of resources and funding as it is. Another significant drawback to the reliance on Facebook as a social networking platform is its lack of accessibility compared to other platforms such as Twitter. Facebook is optimised for desktop use, with good security measures to allow it to adapt well to this medium. However, it cannot compete with Twitter in terms of functions on a mobile phone, which is the preferred medium for social media consumption in the present. Kwon, Park and Kim find that not only is communication via Facebook more passive than via Twitter, where users can communicate with others in a more casual, conversational manner, but ‘Twitter’s simpler user interface, greater openness to the public, and more conversational interaction makes it ideal for mobile-based platforms such as smartphones and tablet computers’ (6). This indicates that Facebook cannot surpass Twitter’s accessibility, especially in the age of the smartphone. This is furthered by the fact that mobile phones better lend themselves to social media users’ ‘downtime’ which has previously been established as on their commute or on their breaks at work; one is far more likely to use their phone during these short intermissions between tasks and work than a desktop. Therefore, Twitter would be a superior platform for posting to reach an audience organically during these hours. Whilst the study also states that ‘Facebook offers more diverse functions in a full capacity as well as stronger privacy and security measures, making it more suitable for desktop users’, this point is made inconsequential when one is called to question as to whether it can even be seen as an advantage that Facebook translates better to desktop platforms when, in the domain of social media, the desktop computer is quickly being rendered redundant, discarded in favour of the mobile phone. In addition to being less suitable for mobile use than other platforms, there is also suitable evidence to support the fact that Facebook, by virtue of the ages of its target demographic, is quickly fading into internet obscurity. Even by 2021, Facebook’s market share among social networks in the US dropped to 50.8% from where it stood at 54.3% in 2019. Furthermore, in 2023, it was found that only 2.9% of people between the ages of 13-17 use Facebook, and 18.1% of people between the ages of 18-24. This is a worrying demographic; the point would not necessarily stand if it were not for the fact that many humanities organisations and humanities departments of schools and universities specifically aim to target those of student age. Their main reason to use Facebook as a social networking site is to incite interest in and engage with those who are young and who will be influenced to enrol on humanities courses at school and university. If only 21% of Facebook’s users are student age, it greatly limits the engagement for creators who target this population. It can therefore be concluded that, whilst there are many benefits to be found in using Facebook regarding the cultivation of community, a creator’s success as a humanities organisation or department is wholly dependent on the extent to which they abide by ‘best practices’. Even then, due to monetary restrictions and the fact that much of the target demographic is not active on Facebook, it is easy to fail in achieving the relevant engagement. There are many other platforms which still include ‘Group’ functions that are more attractive to and accessible for the younger, student-aged generation. It is still worthwhile for organisations to set up a Facebook page as its security measures mean it is good for establishing a reputable online presence, but this must only form a small fraction of an organisation's efforts to garner engagement on social networking platforms. Research by Emma Renz Written by Mia Felt References Hamidreza Shahbaznezhad, Rebecca Dolan, Mona Rashidirad, ‘The Role of Social Media Content Format and Platform in Users' Engagement Behavior’, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1094996820300992 Kwak et al, 2010 Gregory D. Saxton, Richard D. Waters, What do Stakeholders Like on Facebook? Examining Public Reactions to Nonprofit Organizations’ Informational, Promotional, and Community-Building Messages, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1062726X.2014.908721?casa_token=Ss0rqLoUKGsAAAAA%3A-IKJRUnKSqxU902d9HvLro-fc8TH8rSNWZqBGdRb_UapU39TgSaFJ78yWf7BCEVz6MlPnxKc1mk&journalCode=hprr20 Adam Peruta, Alison B. Shields, Marketing your university on social media: a content analysis of Facebook post types and formats, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08841241.2018.1442896?scroll=top&needAccess=true&role=tab (as above) Adam Peruta, Alison B. Shields Sang Jib Kwon , Eunil Park , Ki Joon Kim, What drives successful social networking services? A comparative analysis of user acceptance of Facebook and Twitter, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036233191400041X

SASA will be hosting more Archaeogaming Live events this summer! First coined by Andrew Reindhard in 2013, "Archaeogaming" is a marriage of the concepts of archaeological study and videogames. With input from experts in various fields related to ancient studies, SASA’s Archaeogaming Live Team engages our viewers by discussing the ways in which classical concepts are represented within popular game franchises while playing the games live on stream. We aim to find the happy medium between being instructional and entertaining!  Join Madigan Shepherd over on Twitch  on Friday July 18th, 3 PM EDT, for our “Ghost of Tsushima” stream as we explore the historical themes the game was founded on. Set during the First Mongol Invasion of Japan in 1274, we’ll follow the story of Jin Sakai as he sets out to defend Tsushima island. This will be an engaging opportunity to learn more about the time period as well as the history of Tsushima island itself.  Starting on Saturday, August 2nd 12:00 PM EDT Julie Levy will be picking up where we left off with “Outer Wilds” back in June. Keirnan Acquisto, a professional art historian specializing in ancient Greek and Roman art, will be joining Julie to provide live commentary for the game. The playthrough will focus on what the material culture of a people can tell you about their lives, as well as exploring the technical aspects of archaeology itself.  We keep our playthroughs up on Twitch as long as possible, and you can also catch our Archaeogaming Live playthroughs on SASA’s YouTube channel . We hope to see you there for an informative and fun time!

Join us for SASA’s fifth annual “Opening the Ancient World” virtual conference! This year’s theme is “Body and Medicine in Antiquity: Health Care, Knowledge & Practice,​” and will be live streamed here  on July 20th & 21st, 2025. Anyone may sign up for this public event – plus, it’s free! You can also catch the livestream of this event on SASA’s YouTube  and Facebook  pages. The event will also be made available on any of our streaming partners’ pages, such as History with Kayleigh  and Digital Hammurabi . Here at SASA, we are always committed to making ancient scholarship accessible to all that are interested in antiquity. Our goals for this conference are to present excellent academic information from scholars around the world and researchers who did not follow a traditional career path, as well as to foster discussion and action towards inclusivity.   Joining us will be two distinguished keynote speakers, Bronwen L. Wickkiser and Dr. Casey L. Kirkpatrick. You can find out more about them, their accolades, and published works on the official virtual conference page , where you can also see our full schedule of talks from scholars around the world working on anthropology, archaeology, religion, and ancient healthcare. We also have two special sessions this year:  “Snake Oils and Magic Herbs: The Art of Ancient Quackery”  and “Close Reading Workshop: How to Diagnose a Text” .. The first special session (Jul 20, 2025, 1:00 PM EDT – Jul 21, 2025, 2:30 PM EDT) will focus on the creative ways, both alien and familiar, that ancient civilizations sought to treat illnesses. This discussion will go beyond just the medicinal practices employed and delve deeper into the cultural, religious, and political implications of these remedies. The second special session (Jul 21, 2025, 3:30 PM – 5:00 PM EDT) is a workshop on how to analyze both modern and ancient texts the way a doctor might, paying careful attention to elements such as tone, word choice, and structure. This workshop will include guided presentations by scholars before leading into a hands on experience with a set of English texts.  Registration is open on our conference page, and if you’d like to participate in the Close Reading Workshop, you can register for that too!  Please sign up ahead of time so that you will have access. Perhaps the subject of ancient medicine excites you, or maybe you’re hungry for more pointers on how to closely read texts and form better arguments. No matter the reason, this year’s conference has a little bit of something for everybody to look forward to. We here at SASA sincerely hope to see you there!