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By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Over time, culinary practices have changed, reflecting developments in technology, culture, and trade. How people eat and what they eat are largely shaped by culture and how food is viewed within a community. Early cooking practices were influenced by the need for survival, while modern practices allow for more creativity and innovation. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans introduced more refined methods such as baking, boiling, and fermenting, while modern civilizations have developed new methods and applications for cooking through technology. This paper will dive into the changes in food and culinary practices throughout time and how they shaped local communities and culture. Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, the basis of food was barley, wheat, and vegetables. These core foods built the foundation for the Egyptian diet. Meat was eaten on occasion, but was typically expensive and not affordable for the common person. The major meals consisted of bread and porridge made from wheat and barley. Because bread was so important, many different varieties were invented, often including different ingredients for flavor. Fruits and vegetables were another staple, adding protein to the diet with the limited access to meat. Lentils, beans, and peas added both fiber and protein to porridges and soups, while garden vegetables like onions, lettuce, cucumbers, garlic, and radishes were common (King, 2024). Other protein supplements included eggs and dairy products. This led to cheesemaking being a key culinary practice that was practiced by most to add additional foods to the daily diet. With regards to fishing, freshwater fish, like carp, catfish, Nile salmon, and eels, could be found in rivers and lakes (King, 2024). These fish would be smoked and dried to help preserve them from the hot climate. The Egyptians also ate a variety of sweets, including cakes and pastries that would typically be made using nuts, fruits, and other sweet syrups.   Popular drinks included beer, which was often brewed at home and consumed with meals. These beers typically had low alcohol content and were consumed throughout the entirety of the day. Different beer varieties were created through the addition of fruits or spices. Wines were also created using grapes, dates, and figs. These drinks were very common and popular in Egyptian culture, consumed daily with meals, at events and festivals, and when spending time with family or friends.   Very little has been discovered with relation to ancient Egyptian recipes, although artwork has helped researchers build diet models. Simple methods of preparation like soups, stews, and casseroles appear to have been the most popular (King, 2024). They also used culinary practices, including boiling, roasting, baking, and frying, to cook meats and other foods. Essential additions to the diet were spices and seasonings to provide flavors to the foods. These included herbs like dill, parsley, and thyme, along with nuts, vegetable oils, and animal fats. Kitchenware typically consisted of stone and clay to make pots and utensils, although what individuals had access to was largely dependent on class. People would typically eat together, seated on stools or the floor, eating from communal dishes or bowls. They would use clay cups and wooden utensils to eat, enjoying the accompaniment of family and friends.   Ancient Greece The geography of ancient Greece largely shaped its diet. Much of the terrain was mountainous, leading to limited land to grow crops on. Because of this, farmers typically built terraces on hillsides to reduce soil erosion and improve irrigation. They also practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility and used tools like plows and hoes to foster improved plant growth. With the limited amount of growable land, farming land ownership was a major point of contention. Smaller farmers would work their land while larger farmers would have additional help in the form of slaves or paid laborers. Key crops consisted of barley, wheat, olive trees, and gra pes. Each of these was able to grow well in the local environment and was instrumental to Greek cuisine. Barley and wheat were grown to make bread and porridge, which were what many ate for survival due to their low cost. Olive trees produced olives, which were used to create olive oil, a versatile product used in cooking, lighting lamps, religious rituals, and personal grooming (World History Edu, 2025). Grapes were grown to produce wine, which was a staple of Greek culture. Other popular foods included figs, apples, pears, and herbs like oregano, thyme, and mint.   In addition to crops, Greeks would consume livestock and their products to survive. Cattle were raised primarily for milk, and on occasion, would be consumed for their meat. Like ancient Egypt, cheesemaking was very important and provided additional foods that could be incorporated into diets. Chicken, pigs, and geese would be raised for their meat and eggs. Bees were also highly valued for their honey and beeswax, which could be used for candles, as sweeteners, and more. As a whole, the diet heavily relied on vegetables and dairy products. Meat was typically reserved for special occasions or sacrifices.    Ancient Rome The Ancient Roman diet was expanded compared to earlier periods. Much of this was because of improved trading routes with neighboring areas. The most notable trade route was the Silk Road connecting Rome to the east, bringing spices, silk, and other luxury goods to the heart of the Roman Empire (Ancient Societies, 2025). Another influential trade route was the Maritime Trade, which facilitated the transport of goods like olive oil, wine, and fish products to Rome (Ancient Societies, 2025). Through these trade routes, Romans were able to gain access to goods and foods that they would not have otherwise had access to, diversifying their diets and culinary practices.   Many of the core foods remained the same as earlier periods, including wheat, barley, vegetables, fruits, meats, and spices. Wheat and barley were mostly used to make breads, porridges, and cereals. Vegetables and fruits, including onions, garlic, grapes, apples, and figs, were very popular and often used in dishes either as sides or to provide improved flavor. Meat and fish were still usually only enjoyed on special occasions, but remained important for society. Spices were widely used to enhance flavors and change the monotony of a similar diet each day. Like earlier periods, wine and beer held important cultural significance, although there are many documents showcasing alcohol abuse. During festivals, events, and other celebrations, wine would be distributed for free or at a very low cost, leading to the often excessive intake of alcohol (Hanson, 2017).   Ancient Romans used a variety of cooking techniques to prepare the food they had available. Boiling was a popular technique to prepare grains and legumes, and is how porridges were made. Roasting meat over an open flame was the primary way of cooking meat and fish, adding spices to bring out flavors. Many desserts and pastries were cooked by baking, while dishes were often cooked by stewing in large pots, allowing flavors and spices to be added and mixed. Social gatherings often revolved around meals, and culinary traditions were integral to Roman culture (Ancient Societies, 2025).   Middle Ages The Middle Ages marked a period of diverse culinary practices as many societies and cultures were involved during this time period. From the Roman Empire’s conquests to the Silk Road trade routes, medieval cuisine encompassed a variety of flavors/ingredients sourced from various places around the world (Anastasiia, 2024). In all, many of the foods discussed in previous sections are the same, with vegetables and fruits playing a major role in society.   Culinary practices during the time reflected the values and culture of the time. Religious beliefs shaped dietary restrictions, which in turn impacted what foods could be consumed. Preservation methods like salting and smoking were crucial in preserving foods for the future since refrigerators were not around. Rituals often played an important role in dining practices and how food could be consumed. These meals were typically communal events that brought people together in an effort to promote unity and respect.   One significant advancement came in the form of how beer and wine were created. In many earlier periods, beer and wine were home-brewed and typically low in alcohol content. During the Middle Ages, monasteries became centers for brewing and winemaking. Here, the art of brewing became the work of monks, where they made several key discoveries, such as using hops as an ingredient (Hanson, 2017). Hops served as a flavor and preservative for beer, allowing it to be saved and stored for longer periods of time before turning sour. Most importantly, the process of distillation was outlined during this time. This allowed for the brewing and creation of even more types of alcoholic beverages and laid the foundation for future alcohol creation.   Renaissance The Renaissance was a time of rapid educational growth and the development of many discoveries. For most, bread remained the food of choice, ranging from white bread consumed by the upper classes to wheat bran eaten by the lower classes. Rice was consumed in some areas, while peaches and melons were introduced into other diets. Salads became popular during that time, differing in specific content based on what was available in that particular area. Meat, milk, and eggs remained popular, along with pork, fish, and even peacocks, having roles in their diet. In the Baltic and Mediterranean regions, people regularly ate fish, including sardines, cod, and tuna, and would consume porpoise and whale when caught.   Sugar was considered to be a spice and was predominantly used by the rich since it was very costly. With Christopher Columbus's successful sailing to America, a variety of new spices and foods were introduced. He brought back tomatoes, potatoes, chocolate, turkey, squash, coffee, and tea (Dattler, 2018). Many of these foods were new and transformed the diet and intake of people throughout Europe and the rest of the world. As trade continued, more foods and goods were shared with one another, adding to daily intakes. With the variety of new foods, a variety of cookbooks started getting written and published. These shared cooking methods and recipes for some of the new foods that were introduced, along with sharing how different cooking techniques can generate different flavors.   With the process of distillation being outlined during the Middle Ages, many developments were made during the Renaissance period. In particular, the creation of many popular types of alcohol was developed, including champagne, whiskey, gin, and rum. Champagne was created during the 17th century and was enjoyed and popular because of the bubbles within it. By the 16th century, whiskey was widely consumed throughout parts of Europe and was very popular in Ireland and Scotland. Gin was created using Juniper berries and was initially used for medicinal purposes, but it quickly grew into a popular French and English drink. Lastly, Rum was produced using molasses and became New England’s largest and most prosperous industry (Hanson, 2017).   Modern Age As time has gone on, vegetables, spices, meats, etc., have been used to create a wide variety of new foods. New types of cheeses, peanut butter, yogurts, and much more have been created, adding variation to diets that did not previously exist in past civilizations. Much of this development has been facilitated by the development of new cooking appliances. While the basics have largely stayed the same with regards to boiling, roasting, and baking being key cooking practices, today, people have a variety of new tools and technologies to cook. The development of the refrigerator by General Electric (GE) in 1927 transformed how food could be stored (Hardy, 2023). This decreased the rate of spoilage for many foods and allowed individuals and families to keep foods for longer periods of time. Another key development was the creation of the stove. Before the stove, people relied on open fires for cooking and heating, which could be dangerous and inefficient at cooking things uniformly. The first stoves were closed metal boxes that made cooking safer, fostered improved heat distribution, and increased fuel efficiency (Thermo History, 2025). In addition to improved cooking ability, stoves also served a key role in heating homes and keeping individuals warm when it was cold out. Before the stove, heating homes was a challenge and relied on fireplaces, but with the invention of the stove, entire rooms or even entire houses could be warmed. The invention of the stove led to many other cooking appliances, including the microwave, toaster oven, and many more. This has revolutionized how individuals are able to store, cook, and consume different foods.   With the rise of new appliances and technology, new innovative cooking techniques have been developed. One such example is sous vide cooking, which involves vacuum sealing foods in bags and cooking them at precise temperatures in a water bath. This is able to yield improved flavors of foods and increased cooking efficiency with regard to time and labor spent. Another new technique is molecular gastronomy, which connects science with traditional cooking. Examples include foam creation, where chefs can create foams with distinctive flavors and textures, and liquid nitrogen, enabling rapid freezing and texture changes of foods (Naudi, 2023). Another newer and innovative method includes the demand for plant-based foods. Using science, vegetables can be treated like proteins and grilled, seared, or roasted to give the appearance of meat. Additionally, advances in plant-based components have resulted in the invention of molecular substitutes like dairy-free cheeses and meat substitutes for plants, enabling the development of plant-based copies of traditional recipes (Naudi, 2023).   Conclusion As a whole, the evolution of culinary practices has reflected changes in trade, culture, and technology. From early diets of vegetables, fruits, and dairy to highly processed diets of today, food has changed in significant ways. The development of trade routes introduced new foods and goods into communities, adding to the spreading of cultures. Starting in the Middle Ages, new methods of distillation and preservation transformed how food and alcohol could be consumed. Modern times have ushered in a new era of culinary creativity, fueled by technological innovations such as refrigeration, stoves, and advanced cooking techniques like sous vide and molecular gastronomy. Ultimately, culinary practices have shaped communities, bringing people together through traditions and family that continues to evolve and exist today.   Sources Anastasiia. (2024, February 20). Medieval Food Facts: A Tasty History Dive . Knightstemplar.co . https://knightstemplar.co/medieval-food-facts-a-tasty-history-dive/#google_vignette Ancient Societies. (2025). Unearthing the Origins of Ancient Roman Cuisine . Ancient Societies. https://ancientsocieties.net/blog/archaeology/ancient-roman-food-origins/ Dattler, L. (2018). Eating and drinking during the Renaissance - Hektoen International . Hekint.org . https://hekint.org/2018/09/06/eating-and-drinking-during-the-renaissance/ Hanson, D. (2017, March 22). History of Alcohol and Drinking around the World . Www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org . https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/history-of-alcohol-and-drinking/ Hardy, J. (2023, October 11). Who Invented the Refrigerator? the History of the Refrigerator from Ancient Times to Today | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-refrigerator/ King, A. (2024, July 9). Food & Drink in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2494/food--drink-in-ancient-egypt/ Naudi, T. (2023, June 21). Master Modern Cooking Techniques: The New Generation- Tableo . Tableo. https://tableo.com/food-beverage-trends/modern-cooking-techniques/ Thermo History. (2025). The Invention of the Stove and its Impact on Daily Life . Thermo History. https://thermohistory.org/the-invention-of-the-stove-and-its-impact-on-daily-life/ World History Edu. (2025). Food and Agriculture in Ancient Greece - World History Edu . World History Edu. https://worldhistoryedu.com/food-and-agriculture-in-ancient-greece/

By Laura Rovedo An image of the entrance of the Sudan National Museum in March 2025. © Gamal ZainElabdeen Once a symbol of Sudan’s rich history, the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum now lies in ruins: its halls looted, artifacts stolen, and temple shelters damaged. As Sudan’s conflict between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) enters its third year, it has left nearly 150,000 dead, displaced 12 million people, and pushed 25 million into experiencing extreme hunger. The war that erupted in Sudan in April 2023 has devastated not only lives and cities but the foundations of Sudan’s cultural memory. The destruction of the country’s cultural heritage is not just collateral damage; it represents what many Sudanese scholars and officials describe as a targeted erasure of history. The Sudan National Museum and the University of Khartoum: assessing the damage Inaugurated in 1971, the Sudan National Museum included the two story museum, laboratories and the headquarters for the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM). Facing the artificial lake in the garden were also special shelter structures created to protect the temples of Buhen, Kumma, and Semna West. A point of pride, the museum housed more than 100,000 artifacts from various sites that were representative of the entire range of Sudanese history: from the Palaeolithic to the Kingdom of Kerma, from the kingdom of Kush to that of Meroe, from Medieval Makuria to the Islamic Period. Many of these objects were salvaged during the UNESCO Nubian campaign started in the 1960s, which rescued sites threatened by the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Before the war the museum had begun its first complete rehabilitation, with plans to reopen by mid-2023; the project was halted with the beginning of the conflict. Just a month into it, satellite images confirmed damage to the structures. By 2024, trucks were seen hauling crates of artifacts out: UNESCO called for compliance to the humanitarian law that forbids damaging, looting and using cultural propriety for military purposes. The extent of the damage became clear only when the SAF was able to re-establish control over Khartoum between April and May 2025. Photographs and videos showed extensive damage: the roofs covering the temple shelters were broken, monuments were used for target practice, human remains were damaged, glass cabinets destroyed and the collection looted. Only the temples and a few statues remain, including one of the Kushite king Taharqa (690 - 664 BC). UNESCO requested to compile lists of stolen objects; they also implemented emergency measures like the securing and digitalization of the collections of five archaeological museums, including the Kerma Museum and the Jebel Barkal Museum. The full extent of the damage is still unclear: a specialist team was sent to visit the site, collect information and document the situation in a full report, which is now still being completed. The destruction didn’t stop at cultural heritage. Sudan’s universities and their historical buildings, especially in Khartoum, have been severely damaged or rendered inaccessible. Despite the resilience of professors and students that were able to attend online lectures and exams, the lack of access to libraries, laboratories, research facilities and collections created huge obstacles. Entire research seasons and opportunities of fieldwork for archaeology students of antiquities were also lost. A conversation with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed and Prof. Francesca Iannarilli SASA had the opportunity to discuss the current situation in Sudan in a joint interview with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed, a PhD student and lecturer from the University of Khartoum currently residing in Italy as a Visiting Student thanks to the Erasmus+ project, and Francesca Iannarilli, Adjunct Professor of Egyptology at Ca' Foscari University of Venice and Field Director of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan at Jebel Barkal. Sara’s research focuses on a geoarchaeological study of Paleolithic lithic tools from the El Ga’ab Depression, west of Dongola, aiming to shed light on early human settlement patterns and the relationship between prehistoric communities and their environment. Professor Francesca Iannarilli and PhD candidate Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed. © Laura Rovedo. Q: What’s the state of the University of Khartoum? What are the difficulties and limits for Sudanese students during the war? Sara : At my university everything came to a halt at the beginning of the war, when most staff and students focused on leaving the capital to find safety in other countries or Sudanese states. I was unable to leave and I have been living in Omdurman, one of the areas that were most affected. It was almost impossible to concentrate on any academic activity. After a few months, the university resumed limited online activity through the use of WhatsApp, Google Meet, and a Moodle platform, starting with undergraduate level classes and exams. Despite the war, around 4,000-5,000 students successfully earned their bachelor degree, showing immense resilience and determination. As for postgraduate studies, the university remained inactive for a longer time, resuming activities only in November 2024. Although some resources could occasionally be found online, connectivity was a major issue: by July and August 2024, internet access was off across all of the country. Sara found a temporary academic refuge in Italy from February until September 2025. This opportunity was gained thanks to the efforts of Prof. Francesca Iannarilli. Together with the former Egyptology professor at Ca’ Foscari, Emanuele Ciampini, she has a long-standing involvement in excavations at Jebel Barkal (modern Karima, Sudan) where the Italian mission, active since the 1970s, has been investigating the royal district of ancient Napata, a major religious and ceremonial site of the Kingdom of Meroe and, previously, of Kush. Q: How did this collaboration begin? Are there future projects related to it? Professor Iannarilli: I found the call for applications and eventually the department was awarded the grant. The project officially started only one year ago, though it was originally planned to run from 2023 until 2026, a three-year period. Unfortunately, due to the situation in Sudan, the start was delayed. This year, Sara and Prof. Nuha Abdel Hafiz joined us. Next year, two more students are expected to join the exchange project. Since it supports outgoing mobility as well, I’m also supposed to return to the University of Khartoum, but if that’s not possible, we’re working on an alternative plan to continue teaching in Cairo, where a group of Sudanese students is currently based. This partnership allowed Sara to access opportunities for academic exchange, receive professional training, and engage with new knowledge and experiences in the field. Q: How did your exchange project in Italy help you with your research? Sara : Coming to Italy through this program gave me the opportunity to reconnect with university after two years. I was able to attend classes on Italian language and on the history of Venice. I visited cities around the country, and participated in training and workshops on physical anthropology, archaeozoology and archaeobotany. One of the most important experiences was the training at the LAMA laboratory [ the Laboratory for Analysis of the Ancient Materials of IUAV University Venice ]; after the destruction of the research facilities at my university, continuing the scientific analysis was impossible. Here, I was able to work again on materials, an experience that inspired major changes in research questions and methodology for my PhD project. I had the opportunity to present my work at conferences, and this allowed me to connect with archaeologists and other experts from Italy and around the world. I was nervous about giving my talks here, but over time I gained more confidence. I was also able to present on topics I’ve never explored before, such as giving a talk about the state of the buildings of the University of Khartoum during a conference in Turin. I also had the chance to assist the mission team in their work on the archival material that was held in the storage rooms of the MVOEM [ Museo del Vicino Oriente, Egitto e Mediterraneo ] Sapienza University in Rome. They’ve been collecting and digitizing maps, drawing, photos and other documents testifying the history of the university’s excavations in Sudan since 1973. Socially and personally, this experience has been equally important. I found a supportive and diverse community in my residence and at university, with peers from all countries, including other students from Sudan; it helped me feel at home again. Q: You mentioned the Jebel Barkal Archives Project. What is it and why is it so important for Sudan’s heritage? Sara: With the war, entire research seasons’ finds were lost. In Sudan, I worked with eight archaeological missions across different sites in the country, but this was the first time I joined a project specifically targeted to the digitization of archival material. It made me understand how the history of archaeology itself evolved and how documenting earlier research can offer new insights. At my department there was a large collection of material that we brought back from excavations, including human remains, but no one had worked on it yet, and it’s now completely gone. The only thing we still have is some documentation, mostly photographs. I really hope the site director will consider launching a similar project in the future, so we can work on what we have left. Q: What can be done to preserve the heritage and what is the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan doing right now? Sara: Once the war ends, it’s crucial that the missions and universities resume fieldwork. Our department is already working on a new plan to rebuild its capacity, creating new museums and reestablishing laboratories. We are actively seeking collaborations and funding from international universities to support the recovery process. We also hope to strengthen our relationship with all Sudanese museums, expanding cooperation and launching projects to preserve our heritage. Professor Iannarilli: Our last field excavation was in 2022. Since we cannot currently work in Sudan, staying connected to the NCAM and the Sudanese universities is the only way to continue collaborating and planning for the future. We participate in UNESCO meetings, and we’re working to bring together directors of other international archaeological missions in Sudan to discuss the situation and coordinate the next steps. It’s essential to keep international attention on Sudan alive. Another important effort is the Jebel Barkal Archives project. We hope that one day this material can be included in online and in-presence exhibitions in Italy and in Sudan, or be used to support field training activities for students. The idea is not only to raise awareness but also to generate financial support. We sadly are not supported by any funding at the moment, neither from the Ministry nor from the University, and are struggling; but we’re still trying our best to send small amounts when possible or organize small fundraising occasions to support humanitarian help and ongoing restoration activities in Karima. We also participate in solidarity initiatives and educational projects: for example, I recently contributed to a small children’s book project by SelkInk that features letters from children and stories from Sudan . Q: What is your wish for Sudan’s future? What do you miss the most? Sara: What I miss most is working with students and colleagues on the field; they taught me so much. I remember laughing and sharing stories while drinking tea and coffee after the day’s work had finished. I also miss my department, the energy of being at university and my friends. I hope we’ll be able to return and start again soon. Professor Iannarilli: I miss simple things: eating ta'ameya , sitting for a coffee prepared by a street vendor, looking at the sunset from the top of the mountain. I deeply miss working on the field at Jebel Barkal. I miss Karima and the many friends and colleagues we work with. Sadly, we can’t reach some of them because they don’t use messaging apps. Khalid’s house became our home during the missions: we hope to return one day, resume the work and share beautiful memories with the community of the town. Surprisingly, I also miss Khartoum. For years, it had been just a transit point for us. But I realize only now that I can’t go back that I actually grew attached to it. One place that I’ll miss is the Acropole Hotel . It’s luckily still standing, but it was looted and partially destroyed, and the family fled back to Greece. It’s unlikely they will ever reopen it , but it was a gathering point for generations of archaeologists. I miss that Khartoum, the one that is gone. Another Khartoum will rise, but it will be just different. We both hope for freedom and peace for Sudan, and for a chance to return. We hope that families can be reunited, and that the people that were forced to leave (like professor Nuha, who now temporarily resides in Cairo) can come back and rebuild their life at home. And I hope that us archaeologists and academics can still work together again. Conclusions and how you can help The recent events in Khartoum sparked a renewed sense of hope across Sudan. While the situation remains extremely fragile, it marks a significant shift. Damage to cultural heritage is still in an assessment phase, but universities have just recently started to reopen. The news has been welcomed with relief and joy by Sudanese professors and students, including Sara, who have spent more than two years in fear and uncertainty. Conflict always leaves cultural and academic institutions vulnerable. But heritage is more than objects and monuments: it also represents knowledge, memory and community, and the attack on it often leaves longlasting cultural and generational effects on people and places. There are several meaningful ways to support Sudan and its academic and heritage sectors in this recovery phase: Keep your eyes on Sudan ! Follow the news and share them to raise awareness; Donate to local and international organizations that are providing humanitarian relief; Share resources and expertise with displaced scholars and students around you if possible; Keep updated on UNESCO and NCAM’s efforts to preserve and protect cultural heritage, and learn about Sudan’s fascinating and long history; Follow and help fund archaeological missions, including the Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan at Jebel Barkal (on Instagram: @jebelbarkal_italian_mission and on Facebook: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Sudan - Jebel Barkal ) to help support their projects, at home and on the field; Follow, support, volunteer and donate to SASA to help Save Ancient Studies and protect the future of studies and projects in history and archaeology! Sources Ahmed, Kaamil (2025, March 31), New images reveal extent of looting at Sudan’s national museum as rooms stripped of treasures , The Guardian. Booty, Natasha & Chothia, Farouk (2025, July 4), Sudan war: A simple guide to what is happening , BBC. Center for Preventive Action (2025, April 15), Civil War in Sudan , Global Conflict Tracker. Copnall, James (2025, April 25), From prized artworks to bullet shells: how war devastated Sudan's museums , BBC. Egyptology at Ca’ Foscari University , Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan - Jebel Barkal. Hussain, Abdallah (2025, August 3), Khartoum universities reopen as students defy war , PressTV. Modern Sudan Collective, Sudan National Museum . Morgan, Hiba (2025, April 29), Sudan’s national museum ransacked in war, experts decry loss of artefacts and cultural identity , Al Jazeera English. Pancin, Federica (2025, April 15), Il Sudan National Museum di Khartoum a due anni dallo scoppio della guerra , Djed Medu - Blog di Egittologia. Rilly, Claude (2013), The Sudan National Museum in Khartoum. An Illustrated Guide for Visitors , SFDAS. Scotellaro, Federica (2025, May 21), Interview with Sara Mohammed Mamon Ahmed, PhD student University of Khartoum, Erasmus+ Visiting student Ca’ Foscari , cafoscariNEWS. Scotellaro, Federica (2025, May 22), Protecting Cultural Heritage During Armed Conflict: The Experiences of Two Visiting Scholars from Sudan to Venice Through the Erasmus+ ICM Project , cafoscariNEWS. Sudan National Museum website . TRT Global (2025, June 15), Sudan orders universities to reopen in capital Khartoum . UNESCO (2024, September 12), Sudan: UNESCO raises the alarm on reports of illicit trafficking of cultural heritage . UNESCO (2025, April 16), Sudan: UNESCO steps up its actions as the conflict enters its third year .

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Military weaponry and strategies have experienced vast transformations throughout history. Many of these developments were shaped by technological advancements, global wars and politics, and the pursuit of advancement. From early hand-to-hand and close-quartered fighting of early centuries to the drone strikes, nuclear weaponry, and cyber warfare of today, the ways wars are fought have significantly changed. These changes are important to study as they have each made their unique mark on the history of the world. This paper will dive into the evolution of strategies and warfare throughout the ages. Ancient Egypt In ancient times, military strategies were centrally focused on large-scale infantry formations and direct combat with opposing forces. Much of the early Egyptian warfare was internal, requiring a strong leader and military force to keep the country together in spite of civil unrest. As Ancient Egypt grew in size, regular wars were fought with surrounding nations in efforts to grow their kingdom and gain increased power, control, and resources. During the Old Kingdom, the military was a largely makeshift force of men from different monarchs conscripted into fighting. The soldiers fought for the king and their country, but they were not a united Egyptian army fighting for a common goal (Mark, 2016). As monarchs gained and lost power, many would become greedy, building statues for themselves rather than the king, and use their soldiers to fight for the crown. This went on for several hundred years, until Amenemhat I took power and created Egypt’s first standing army. This took power from the monarchs and created a more centralized system of control. The Old Kingdom's primary weapons included maces, daggers, and spears. As time went on, bows and arrows and shields were added, changing the way battles were waged. Many of these weapons were rudimentary, and the soldiers were inexperienced. As the old kingdom turned into the middle kingdom period, military advancements were made in the form of copper axes, swords, and bronze spears. These were paired with body armor and much more organization and training for soldiers. The army was better organized with a minister of war and a commander in chief of the army, and these professional troops were highly trained (Mark, 2016). As military tactics became more advanced and soldier training more developed, distinct divisions were developed, including scouts, light infantry, heavy infantry, and cavalry. Each of these groups served a unique role in warfare, allowing for more complex battle plans and tactics. The addition of chariot fighting added even more unique soldiers to the Egyptian army, allowing them to build their kingdom and conquer more lands. In addition to the army, the Egyptian’s developed a navy that both protected Egypt from foreign invaders and served as a mode of transporting soldiers for battle. The latter was the primary function of the navy, quickly transporting soldiers to different areas to jump into battle. The true value of the Egyptian navy was intimidation of potential invaders and the transport of land troops quickly (Mark, 2016). Nearly no documented fighting took place on water by the ships, and instead was between the soldiers that occupied the ships. This meant the early boats were very basic without sophisticated or established weaponry and were used more as a show of power than actual military force. The fall of the Ancient Egyptian kingdom came as a result of inefficient weaponry and civil upheaval. Many turned to iron weapons, which were more expensive without any significant advantage in warfare. The Persians defeated the Egyptian army, followed by Alexander the Great, and then it continued to bounce between rulers until becoming an established country again many years later. Ancient Greece   In Ancient Greece, war was viewed as a necessary evil, with the rewards of war outweighing the cost of materials or lives. Early Greek wars involved small-scale skirmishes between neighboring city-states, where militias were under the control of private individuals. These militias were made up of part-time soldiers who often had rudimentary weapons. As time went on, warfare shifted into larger, organized campaigns involving complex partnerships and alliances. The pillar of the Greek army was the hoplite, a soldier who carried a long spear, a short sword, a bronze shield, and armor if able to afford it. Other warriors, called peltasts, would be armed with short javelins and light armor. As time moved on, lighter troops such as archers and javelin throwers were introduced, challenging the dominance of hoplites and allowing for greater tactical flexibility. Cavalry remained limited due to Greece’s terrain, but became more prominent with future innovations. Each of these roles was unique and instrumental in its own unique way to the success of military outcomes. City-states, including Athens, Corinth, and Rhodes, created fleets of warships that would foster lucrative trading relationships and allow for troops to be moved to foreign areas and establish new colonies (Cartwright, 2018). The most notable ship was called the trireme, a light, fast ship designed for ramming enemy vessels. These ships were very expensive to make and had no spare room, so they had to be docked every night so the crew could sleep. Naval strategies focused on maneuverability, utilizing formations like the periplous and diekplous to outflank or break enemy lines.   Battle strategies relied heavily on religion, planning, sieges, and more. Before the first act of fighting would take place, rituals were undergone to determine the will of the gods. Consults with Apollo and animal sacrifices were crucial to determine if campaigns would be successful. When these rituals were complete, fighting would commence. Land fighting was often done using the formation of the phalanx, where every man protected both themselves and his neighbor with the large shield they carried. These units would move in unison, reducing any one individual from being overly exposed to the enemy. As cities began to be more developed, fighting moved away from open fields and more towards siege warfare. As cities built walls, military towers, moats, and more defenses, attacking troops had to become more advanced as well. Attackers developed siege towers, artillery, and even flamethrowers. Even with these advancements, the primary objective of a siege was to starve those in the city and force a surrender. As battles were fought and wars won, the victors would claim the spoils of war. They would collect any available silver, gold, weaponry, armor, etc. that held any value, dedicating certain amounts to the gods and keeping the rest for personal gain.   Roman Empire The Roman Empire remains one of the most well-known and respected empires of history. Their military power was instrumental in their expansion and creation, from their advancements in weaponry to complex training and military strategies. The Romans relied on complex formations and military structures, utilizing the manipular system of many smaller, more mobile units called maniples, consisting of 120 men, divided into two centuries of 60 men each (history tools, 2024). As the empire’s enemies became more advanced, the army’s organization became even more sophisticated, with reforms from Gaius Marius professionalizing the military and creating standardized training and equipment. With the development of large legions of 5,000 men, each further subdivided into 10 cohorts, divided into 6 centuries, divided into 10 conteubernium. This hierarchical structure fostered clear lines of communication where each unit had the ability to operate independently and efficiently on the battlefield. Individual training was also much more advanced during this period. All soldiers would undergo training in marching, formations, the use of swords, javelins, shields, setting up and breaking down camp, constructing makeshift bridges and roads, etc. This training instilled collective discipline, endurance, and identity, all of which were essential for maintaining cohesion in the face of battle (history tools, 2024). The Romans developed several new military formations that made their military prowess unlike any seen before. One of the most effective was called the testudo formation and involved soldiers interlocking their shields to create a nearly impenetrable wall. This formation was often used during sieges, allowing the soldiers to get to the city walls safely. Another prominent innovation was the triple line formation, which consisted of three lines of soldiers with the most seasoned troops at the back of the line and less-seasoned fighters at the front. This formation allowed for a large degree of flexibility on the battlefield, where gaps would be filled by more experienced soldiers, preventing any critical openings from forming. A third technique was the wedge formation, where soldiers would form a triangular shape and launch a concentrated attack at a weak point in an enemy’s line. As the wedge broke through the enemy line, the enemy troops would be cut off into smaller groupings, allowing the Romans to create chaos on the battlefield. Roman tactics heavily relied on the integration of combined arms—infantry, cavalry, and artillery—paired with advanced engineering skills. The army's use of artillery like ballistae would weaken enemy defenses, while cavalry provided critical reconnaissance and flanking maneuvers. The engineering of rapid bridges, siege engines, fortifications, and more allowed for unmatched mobility on the battlefield. The impacts of the Roman military have been far-reaching. Their tactics, training, formations, etc., have served as a model for future countries and militaries to build upon.   Middle Ages Medieval military strategies consisted of a variety of different factors, with the presence of empires, city-states, and other religious orders holding power. Battles would range from small skirmishes and raids to full sieges of castles and other fortified cities. The art of sieges improved during this time, with tools like battering rams and catapults having enhanced engineering to combat the defensive advantage that a fortified city or castle provided (Cohen, 2019). Many of these battles were similar to those of earlier periods, with general weaponry and tactics staying largely the same. The major developments were in the weapons themselves, with new siege weaponry and advanced swords, shields, and armor being created, yielding more durable troops.   One of the most well-known soldiers of this time was the European knight, clad in a full set of armor with swords, shields, and other weaponry. Knights were often connected with royalty, either being born into nobility or being bestowed a knighthood by the rulers of the country. During this time, horses, weapons, and armor were costly. With knights typically owning all three, it was oftentimes necessary for a knight to be well-connected in society, being both a skilled warrior but also one intertwined with the elaborate social structures. Other troops consisted of light cavalry and infantry. Light cavalry often were used as scouts or flankers, and were lighter-armored soldiers, while infantry consisted of the general soldier who may wield a variety of weaponry. The advancement of the medieval bow was a powerful new type of ranged weaponry that required many years of training to master. This bow differed from the crossbow and others in that it possessed a greater range of distances at which it could be fired. This allowed for more versatility on the battlefield, with more developed weaponry serving as a hallmark of this period of time.   Renaissance The Renaissance period was a time of great political, social, religious, economic, cultural, and military growth. The development of new technologies yielded new weaponry and radicalized how wars were fought. The landscape of Europe drove forward many wars, with many areas fighting one another and seeking power and gold. As a whole, this period drifted away from the feudal warfare of the Middle Ages that had relied on poorly trained soldiers. Instead, it focused on innovation, incorporating more coordinated and advanced military strategies and tactics. Army personnel became more diverse, including pikemen, larger numbers of cavalry, and cannons. The development of firearms and later the wheel-lock pistol replaced bows, transitioning the way battles were fought. These firearms utilized a cock and a trigger, the cock having a hole in it to hold a match, so when the trigger was pulled, the match would cause the powder to ignite and discharge the metal bullet (Military History, 2022). While many of these early firearms had limited range, they were instrumental on the battlefield, and infantry and cavalry would regularly carry multiple into battle with them.   Early Renaissance period armies were also well-trained and full of professional soldiers. These armies typically were composed of hired troops who fought for financial incentives. This could cause problems at times, with soldiers sometimes going on strike or electing to fight for the opposing side for more money. This lack of loyalty in army forces was something prevalent in Renaissance fighting (Military History, 2022). As time went on and individual countries began to become more developed, the rise of strong centralized monarchies allowed for the creation of more professional, standing armies.   The battlefield also experienced many new transformations. With the development of cannons and other artillery, battles could be won or lost based on which side had more artillery weaponry, as opposed to the skill of the fighters. Superior weapons could destroy enemy lines, break fortifications, and cripple infrastructure (Military History, 2022). Additionally, the use of field fortifications became increasingly important. Armies learned to integrate defensive structures into their battle plans, protecting important artillery and personnel. Heavy cavalry experienced a surge in numbers as technical innovations made fighting on horseback more of an advantage. Overall, technological advancements and discoveries drove the advancement of nearly all aspects of the Renaissance period. Post-Renaissance to Modern Age As time progressed, military strategies continued to evolve, largely due to the unprecedented rate at which new military technology and weapons were created. Additionally, the way intelligence is gathered has widely changed from early scouts to technology that is able to record and scan people, buildings, and entire regions. The collection of intelligence has allowed military leaders to assess threats, properly allocate resources, and improve tactical effectiveness, transforming modern warfare (Total Military Insight, 2024). The use of satellites, drones, and more has allowed for the stealthy gathering of information so as not to alert potential enemies. These advancements allow for real-time data analysis so that leaders are able to make decisions that lead to the highest odds of victory. Additional factors, including geography and alliances, have shaped changes in military strategies. As countries have been built up with improved infrastructure, geography has changed with new towns, cities, and more being built up all around the globe in areas that may have previously been barren or covered in trees. These changes have altered how wars are fought. In earlier periods, tree cover could be used for guerrilla warfare; however, if all of the trees in an area are cut down and a town or city is built, then fighting would have to take place in and around the built environment. The ever-changing nature of alliances is also a major factor that has changed throughout time. With new countries being established that did not exist during earlier times, the nature of alliances has widely changed. These alliances are relied upon during times of war to provide military support. Additionally, they are important for day-to-day trading, communication, and more that allow individual countries to obtain all necessary items, including food, technology, natural resources, etc., that are needed to survive and thrive. The development of more specialized firearms, including improved rifles, handguns, snipers, shotguns, and others, has transformed how wars and battles are fought. Soldiers no longer carry swords, shields, axes, and spears, having increased maneuverability and lethality with their high-powered weaponry. Additionally, soldiers no longer march long distances to battle or ride horses to outflank opponents, and instead travel by military buses and sit inside tanks. The advancement of bombing has shifted early cannon use into large bombs dropped from planes from above. This allows for much more flexibility in aiming for a target as a plane can fly above virtually anything dropping bombs below it, whereas a cannon has to be moved and specially aimed at an intended target. The development of atomic bombs and more nuclear weaponry of today has even further changed how wars are discussed and fought. The threat of dropping a nuclear bomb can now be enough to stop a war before it even starts. The act of killing in war is now much less personal in many cases than it once was. In the past, soldiers had to physically kill one another, through stabbing with a spear or axe, or cutting with a sword. Today, pilots are able to drop bombs at the click of a button without having to physically confront an opposing force. The rise of cell phones, the internet, and social media has also radically changed how communication, and in turn, wars are started and how they progress. Cyber warfare has created an entirely new battlefield, where digital systems can be hacked by individuals all across the globe. Cyberattacks are able to target financial systems, power grids, and communication networks, causing widespread panic, all without firing a single shot (McCarthy, 2024). The rise of artificial intelligence has also changed how information is gathered and processed. With AI being able to analyze large amounts of data quickly, patterns and insights may be provided that can influence the outcome of a battle or war. The use of artificial intelligence can also help on the battlefield, where targeting software may help pilots hit specific targets. These innovations are reshaping the battlefield, enhancing the precision and efficiency with which military weapons and personnel are able to operate. As we move into the future, more advancements and innovations are sure to come, and with that, new changes to the way military strategies are developed and how wars are fought are sure to follow. Conclusion Both military strategies and warfare have changed drastically over time, reflecting advancements in technology and shifts in political, economic, and social structures. From early open field, direct fighting with swords, shields, and spears, to the fighting of today with bombs, planes, machine guns, tanks, and more, the nature in which soldiers operate is very different. This reflects the broader changes throughout society, where infrastructure, economic policies, alliances, political systems, and more have grown and advanced. As technology continues to evolve, future military strategies are likely to be centered around artificial intelligence and cyber warfare. This will require more advanced and secure networks, with cybersecurity a matter of growing importance. As the world is sure to face future conflicts, leaders of the world will be able to draw on history and make decisions that both minimize destruction and promote global peace and security.   Sources Cartwright, M. (2018, March 27). Ancient Greek Warfare . World History Encyclopedia; World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Warfare/ Cohen, E. (2019). Strategy - Medieval strategy. In Encyclopædia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/topic/strategy-military/Medieval-strategy history tools. (2024, May 25). The Art of War: A Historian‘s Perspective on Roman Military Tactics - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-art-of-war-a-historians-perspective-on-roman-military-tactics#google_vignette Mark, J. (2016, October 3). Ancient Egyptian Warfare . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Warfare/ McCarthy, B. (2024, September 12). The Impact of Technology on Modern Warfare . MilitaryConflict -. https://www.militaryconflict.org/the-impact-of-technology-on-modern-warfare/ Military History (Ed.). (2022, March 7). Renaissance warfare: a military revolution | The Past . The-Past.com . https://the-past.com/feature/renaissance-warfare-a-military-revolution/ Total Military Insight. (2024, June 16). The Evolution of Military Strategy: From Ancient Tactics to Modern Warfare - Total Military Insight . The Insurance Universe. https://totalmilitaryinsight.com/evolution-of-military-strategy/#The_Shift_from_Conventional_to_Asymmetric_Warfare

Since April archaeologists across the U.S. learned that they might have to end work worth decades of research–not because of a dead end but because they can no longer afford to look at it. Rather than promote federal funding of archaeology and related fields, the U.S. government has instead recently decided to cut archaeology funds. Since April, at least 16 grants have been cancelled at the National Science Foundation (NSF), the primary funder of archaeology in the U.S., which amounts to nearly $2 million in unpaid funds for archaeology and palaeopathology research and training. Similar funding cuts for other agencies, including the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Institute for Museum and Library Services, are currently affecting countless researchers, museums and other institutions. According to the article ‘Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil the field’s future’ in Science magazine (2025), Christina Warinner, an anthropologist at Harvard University and president of the International Society for Biomolecular Archaeology, those funding cuts mean that archaeology in the U.S. will lose its prominence among global leaders, as researchers now have to decide between terminating their work, turning to private investors, or moving to countries ready to fund their project s.° 1 Private funding can only substitute a small portion of the federal funding shortages and often has different aims. A study on federal research funding cuts, patents and entrepreneurship using data from the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, the ITRIS UMETRICS program and the Federal Audit Clearinghouse shows that while federal funding aims at keeping researchers in academia, private funding is more often patented and appropriated by the private sector.° 2  It can prove impossible to renew halted or terminated archaeology projects since sites cannot be maintained while half-excavated without succumbing to environmental wear. Ari Caramanica, an archaeologist at Vanderbilt University, claims in the article ‘Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil the field´s future,’ that her research into past human responses to flooding in northern Peru would have contributed to ‘innovative thinking’ to urgent climate issues had it not been prematurely halted.° 3  Caramanica lost a $145,000 NEH grant to a project eventually inevitably helpful as climate change will continue to intensify flooding in the U.S. Moreover, cutting funds affects the future of history. Apart from postgraduate students being unable to progress their careers, professionals too have to face shortages as already approved research funds get rescinded. An anonymous source mentions that “because the current administration overturned an existing loan to a client” which at the moment cannot be replaced with private funding they had to cut 60% of their field stuff on a few days notice. Though the affected field technicians, as part-timers, are not officially “fired”, they nonetheless lost guaranteed income meaning that they are “temporarily out of work directly because of a Trump Admin decision”.° 4  Universities may as well soon decide to cut either unprofitable modules or degrees, or merge several degrees together. This is not just a problem in the U.S. For instance, while Leiden University is still debating those drastic measures, Utrecht University will have downsized 10% of its Humanities budget by 2027.° 5   Downsizing the budget of federal funding in archaeology and related fields risks the extinction of ancient studies. The Netherlands has already begun to cut unprofitable degrees and the halting of research impedes finding solutions to urgent crises, including climate change. Such crises affect us all. Although the destruction of knowledge rarely makes headlines, its impact lasts for centuries. 1 Taylor Mitchell Brown, `Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil field’s future´, in Science  magazine (2025). AAAS Articles DO Group . [online] doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.zk4y23m  [accessed August 15, 2025]. 2  Linda Gorman, ` Are Federal and Private Research Funding Substitutes?´, in NBER, The Digest (2021).    [online] Available at: https://www.nber.org/digest/202103/are-federal-and-private-research-funding-substitutes  [accessed August 15, 2025]. 3 Brown, `Funding cuts to U.S. archaeology could imperil field’s future´. 4  “ I can say is that with the Project I'm working on literally Monday we found out we had to cut 60% of our field staff (~20ish people?) because the current administration overturned an existing loan to the client. We're gonna be fumbling along with a single crew until a possible full stand down in the autumn unless the client can find private funding. The field techs were mostly part timers, so they're not like "fired", they just dont have the guaranteed income from this job that some of them have had since like 2022 and will have to either wait for another project or jump elsewhere/with another office. Point is- People are now at least temporarily out of work DIRECTLY because of a Trump Admin decision." 5  Beatrice Scali, `These major Dutch universities are axing multiple humanities programs´, in Dutch Review (2024). [online] DutchReview. Available at: https://dutchreview.com/news/dutch-universities-to-cut-humanities-programs/  [Accessed August 15, 2025].

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout time, as technology, education, culture, etc. have changed, so too have economic practices. From early bartering systems to the complex global economies of today, each system has served its role in the society in which it existed. This paper will dive into the progression of economic practices from early trade patterns to the rise of capitalism and global trade, and finally discuss the modern age of digital transactions.   Ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptian economy was heavily reliant on trade, where goods and services could be swapped for food and shelter. Ancient Egypt was a country full of natural resources, yet it was not self-sufficient and relied on trade for necessary goods and luxuries (Mark, 2017). To set up a standardized system, goods and services were valued based on a unit called the deben. While this was not an actual coin or currency, it helped create a system where goods and services could be appropriately valued. This prevented a system where everyone sold the same product for a vastly different price.   With regard to trade partners, Mesopotamia was an early trade partner and influenced the development of Egyptian art, religion, and culture (Mark, 2017). Many of the materials that were used as staples of Egyptian culture were obtained through trade. As time went on, more trade partners played a role in Egyptian society, including Libya, Nubia, and Levant. These partners brought precious metals and gems that were not otherwise available in Egypt, and were mostly sought after by nobles and royalty. They also provided many valuable resources, including wood and ivory that were used in creating personal goods and products. As a whole, the kinds of goods that were traded varied largely by region, and because of this, set trading pathways were developed, building physical connections between other countries and territories.   Ancient Greece Ancient Greece had a diverse economy, comprised of various sections including agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship. Agriculture served as the backbone of the Greek economy, trade connected them with the rest of the discovered world, and craftsmanship enhanced the economy and culture of the area (AncientSocieties Team, 2025). Crops and livestock made up a core piece of the Greek economy, with crops like barley, wheat, olives, and grapes being used to generate products like wine and olive oil, which could be traded or sold. Livestock like sheep, cows, and goats were valued for their wool, milk, and meat. These goods could then be sold on the Maritime trade route or in local marketplaces, exchanging excess crops, milk, wool, or eggs for other goods and services.   The introduction of established coins helped revolutionize the economy, placing set values on each coin. The most common material that was used to make the coins was silver, which was then used to facilitate trade patterns. Merchants often held significant power over trading patterns and drove the buying and selling of specific goods. These merchants would often bring back new customs, art, philosophies, and other unique or luxury items. Many artists would travel with merchants, making their way to Greece and adding their ideas to its culture, leading to the construction of well-known structures such as the Parthenon (AncientSocieties Team, 2025). All of these factors added to the rich landscape that made up the Greek economic system and paved the way for future generations.   Ancient Rome The Roman Empire left a huge mark on history due to the size and power of the empire, and as a result of this, its trade power was very influential. The Romans developed extensive road networks and harnessed the Mediterranean Sea, enabling them to connect with distant regions and facilitate the movement of goods (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). The Empire traded and bought commodities like pottery, glass, wine, olive oil, and many others. Access to public services was another distinct feature of Roman life, contributing to the quality of life, including public baths and established water distribution systems (Roman Empire Staff, 2025a).   Roman engineers significantly enhanced the ability for trade to take place. They excelled in building roads that were not only straight and durable but also widespread (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). This allowed for trade throughout the empire as well as with surrounding areas, fostering an improved network of merchants and travelers. Paired with the power of the Roman navy protecting access to the Mediterranean Sea, the Roman trading system was very strong and unlike any economic system that had previously existed. Notable imports included Spain’s valuable metals like silver, Egypt and North Africa’s crops, Britain’s tin and iron, and Italy’s wine (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b).   The Roman Empire relied on taxes to ensure funding for its major activities, including building and maintaining roads, developing infrastructure, and supporting the building of an army. While essential, taxes were often a heavy burden on traders and merchants, sometimes limiting the supply of certain goods or services. Notable taxes included the land tax, poll tax, and customs duties tax. The land tax was applied to farmable land, the poll tax was the annual tax amount that an individual might have to pay based on their income, while the customs duties tax was levied against goods entering cities like Rome (Roman Empire Staff, 2025b). Additional income to the government came from newly conquered territories, which were often required to pay tributes of precious metals, gems, or soldiers for military service.   Middle Ages The Middle Ages were heavily influenced by the feudal system, where lords owned land and peasants worked that land in exchange for food and shelter. This relationship drove the economy as most individuals were largely reliant on the lords of the land they worked on. Additionally, the further growth of towns and the expansion of trade routes, such as those along the Mediterranean Sea, led to the development of a more sophisticated economy and the emergence of long-distance trade (Biernat, 2023). With the established class divides, life was very different for a lord compared to a peasant. The average day for a peasant involved large amounts of physical labor, either tending to livestock, working in the fields, or completing household chores. At the end of a workday, most people would return home for dinner, spend time with one another, and participate in events before going to sleep early to get rest for the next workday. On the other hand, lords were not working the fields daily and had time to attend shows or plays. The monetary system of the Middle Ages was largely built upon the use of coins. Coins were regularly made of gold, silver, or copper and held specific values that could be exchanged for other goods or services (Biernat, 2023). Different regions used different types of coins and currency methods, making standardization impossible and confusing. Even with these differences, currency was important in fostering the buying and selling of goods between people and places.   Renaissance The Renaissance was a period of significant growth and development, namely the rise of capitalism. The rise of the middle class was witnessed during this time, leading to an increase in trade and travel, as well as the spread of new ideas (Green, 2024). This drove an increase in the desire for education, placing an emphasis on the arts, scientific discoveries, and new inventions. Renaissance economics focused on production based on human creativity, emphasizing education, science, incentives, and entrepreneurship (Green, 2024). The shift to a capitalist economic system drove significant change to the culture and environment of the world. This changed how individuals operated within the economic system, eliminating the lord-servant system and creating one where people can operate independently within it. Trade was another major piece of the economy of the Renaissance. Wealth accrued from exploration, such as the influx of gold and silver from the Americas, accelerated the economic growth of Europe. This was connected with the other major economic system during this period, mercantilism. This revolved around the idea that the nation’s wealth and power were best when exports were high and imports were low. This helped drive the expansion of global trade patterns and added significantly to the sharing of goods, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and more around the globe.   Modern Age As time continued and more of the world was discovered and settled, global trade patterns continued to evolve and develop. The discovery and settling of the Americas established new countries and new trade partners. As a result of the rise of economies within new countries, many countries experienced a decrease in their wealth and power (Stearns, 2020). Much of this was rooted in the new independence of countries like the United States, and no longer paying large sums of money through taxes to England, keeping that money for their own use once independent. This is what drove much of the economic turmoil throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, as kingdoms and empires were broken up, giving way to the newly won independence.   Additionally, other economists began developing their principles, including Adam Smith, proposing the idea of an ‘invisible hand.’ This suggested that individuals will pursue things that benefit them as opposed to society at large. This has laid the foundation for many countries today, emphasizing the benefits of free markets with limited governmental intervention (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). Another important political and economic concept that arose during this time was Karl Marx’s manifesto outlining communism. This economic system emphasized everyone being equal with all in the society pooling and sharing resources evenly.   Today, many countries employ different economic systems. Some of the most prevalent are the market economy and the mixed economy. The market economy operates on principles of supply and demand, where individuals and businesses make their own decisions based on their interests (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). Mixed economies involve government involvement to regulate the market and provide goods and services like welfare. This system aims to have an efficient economy while simultaneously ensuring that other social needs and objectives are met.   The rise of centralized banking systems has further transformed how individuals interact with and store their money. With these systems, credit and debit were formed, interest rates and loans were established and standardized, and other specialty accounts have been created. National centralized banks drastically impact the world, regulating interest rates, money supply, and financial regulations and policies.   Modern day, international trade and global markets continue to be instrumental to the success of individual countries. These relationships are often very complex and constantly changing based on partnerships, wars, and other global political, social, or economic issues. These trade patterns allow countries to specialize in producing goods where they have a comparative advantage, leading to more efficient resource allocation and increased global output (AccountingInsights Team, 2024). This helps promote global cooperation where no one country can produce everything needed and relies on others, strengthening partnerships and enhancing the global economy.   Conclusion Evaluating the change in economic practices from early bartering systems to the connected global market that exists today reflects the many new resources, technologies, and ideas that have been developed throughout history. While early civilizations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome had simpler frameworks, they laid the foundations for trade, building infrastructure to facilitate patterns of connection. Later periods, like the Middle Ages and Renaissance, built upon earlier periods and paved the way for capitalism, exploration, and individualism. The rise of centralized banking systems and technology during the modern age transformed the way people engaged in economic markets. Today’s global trade patterns, supported by digital transactions and international cooperation, highlight the dynamic and interconnected nature of the world economy. As technology continues to develop and international relations are ever-changing, economic systems and networks will change alongside it, shaping how societies interact with each other and the greater world. Sources AccountingInsights Team. (2024, August 20). Modern Economic Principles and Policies Explained . Accounting Insights. https://accountinginsights.org/modern-economic-principles-and-policies-explained/ AncientSocieties Team. (2025, February 5). Unearthing the Economic Culture of Ancient Greece: A Deep Dive . Ancient Societies. https://ancientsocieties.net/blog/history/ancient-greece-economic-culture/ Biernat, M. (2023, February 4). The Economy in the Middle Ages: The Medieval Economic System – Political Economy . Political-Economy.com . https://political-economy.com/the-economy-in-the-middle-ages-the-medieval-economic-system/#google_vignette Green, J. (2024, June 23). How did the Renaissance in Europe impact society economically? - Geographic Pedia . Geographic Pedia. https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-pedia/how-did-the-renaissance-in-europe-impact-society-economically/ Mark, J. J. (2017, June 15). Trade in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/ Roman Empire Staff. (2025a, March 4). The Insane Wealth of the Roman Empire - Roman Empire . The Roman Empire. https://roman-empire.net/society/the-insane-wealth-of-the-roman-empire Roman Empire Staff. (2025b, March 4). The Roman Economy Explained - Trade, Taxes and Financial Power . The Roman Empire. https://roman-empire.net/society/the-roman-economy-explained-trade-taxes-and-financial-power Stearns, P. N. (2020). Happiness in World History . Routledge.

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction The world of music and entertainment has changed largely over time, reflecting changes in technology, culture, and values. From early community performances to global entertainment and streaming services, the way people create and share music has been vastly transformed. This paper will walk through the major changes in music and entertainment over time, focusing on historical periods, technological innovations, and their respective cultural impacts. In ancient cultures, music played an important role in rituals, celebrations, and even daily activities, highlighting its importance in social and spiritual life (Becker, 2024). Many of these early forms of music and entertainment were ways of passing down stories, traditions, and wisdom to future generations. This allowed for the sharing of knowledge between communities, along with promoting community engagement and connectivity. In addition to the words holding meaning, the musical instruments that were used were also typically symbolic. Flutes, drums, lyres, etc., most often had special meanings to them and were handcrafted using available materials. This added to the importance these instruments held in music. These hand-crafted tools would serve as key pieces in weddings, funerals, and other ceremonies.   Early string instruments consisted of lyres and harps and were most often made out of animal guts and plant fibers (Becker, 2024). These instruments were used to add emotional depth to music, evoking responses from the audience. Percussion instruments mostly consisted of drums and cymbals and were most often constructed out of wood or different animal skins. In many ancient cultures, percussion instruments were very important and held spiritual importance, like the sound of drums summoning rain or honoring the gods (Becker, 2024). Early wind instruments included flutes and horns and were most often made from bone, wood, or metal. These instruments typically generated rich or soothing tones and were used in dances and ceremonies (Becker, 2024).   Ancient Egypt In Ancient Egyptian culture, music was very valuable and used as a method of communication with the gods. The Egyptians loved music and dancing, valuing both as ways of ceremony and entertainment. Dancing was associated with religious devotion and human sexuality (Mark, 2017). Instruments consisted of percussion, stringed, and wind varieties and were often played solo or as part of a larger group. While instruments were played, the ancient Egyptians did not have any ideas of the concept of musical notation and instead passed songs down from generation to generation. With regard to entertainment, dance was a very popular way for individuals to stay active and engaged with others. Music and dance served to bring those in religious ceremonies closer to their faith (Mark, 2017). Hymns to the gods were often sung to the accompaniment of musical instruments and dance. This was believed to show respect and honor to the gods. Another popular form of entertainment was local shows such as reenactments of popular events or stories. This would be attended by all types of citizens, ranging from lower-class people all the way to the royals.   Ancient Greece Much like the ancient Egyptians, the Greeks also relied heavily on music and entertainment as a core piece of their culture. Entertainment events such as festivals, rituals, parties, work, games, theater, and war were all typically accompanied by music (Kelsey Museum, n.d.). Professional musicians were valued members of society whose musical skills were judged in public competitions. Like earlier periods, there was a range of musical instruments that were played. These include wind instruments like flutes, stringed instruments like harps, and percussion instruments like drums.    The Greeks were also the first to propose musical notation. This has left around 50 different compositions preserved to be recorded to this day. Ancient Greeks developed a system that used symbols, representing pitches and rhythms, highlighting the melody rather than the harmony (Becker, 2024). Much of this was aided by the use of the Greek alphabet to represent the different musical notes. These developments laid the way for much of the world to build upon, setting a solid early foundation for music.   Ancient Rome Unlike Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire did not place a heavy emphasis on music as a core principle of its culture. This does not mean music was not a part of the community, but it does highlight how Roman society differed from others. They used similar instruments to previous civilizations, and sang songs about many of the same topics as others, including religion, love, and war. Although the Romans did not revolutionize music, their forms of entertainment are the topic of many popular movies and television shows. The most popular were gladiator fights, with the best-known arena being the Coliseum. These fights were infamous during the time, and people would come from all over to watch the fighting that would take place within. Whether that be groups of people fighting each other, men fighting wild animals, etc., these were wildly popular and enjoyed by people of all classes.   Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, many new types of entertainment emerged. Board Games were very popular in this era, with people playing Chess, Backgammon, The Philosopher Game, Fox & Geese, Knucklebones, Hazard, and many others (Chakra, 2022). Chess grew to be very popular at the t ime after its introduction to Europe in the 9 th  century. Competitive gaming was also very popular during this time, with people regularly gambling on chess games. Outdoor entertainment experienced a rise during this time, with activities like archery, fencing, wrestling,  hammer-throwing, horseshoe-throwing, and many others being further developed or created. Many of these games helped lay the foundation for other games that are still played to this day, like football and cricket. In addition to these games, hunting was often a sport of nobility where nobles would ride horses with their dogs chasing down their targets. Knights and jousting were also influential during this period, where knights would use horses and jousting sticks to best one another and bring honor to their families and nobles. Music was also important, mostly influenced by the church and religion. Aside from the instruments that were played in the church, courtly love was a major theme in medieval celebrations (Chakra, 2022). Some of the main instruments of this era included cymbals, harps, flutes, horns, and tubas, which were often played by established performers and travel groups.   Renaissance Music and entertainment both experienced significant developments during this period of time. Music evolved from solo vocalists to multiple singers singing different melodies simultaneously, accompanied by musical instruments. In addition to this, most music during earlier periods was modal (meaning it followed musical modes as opposed to the major and minor scales). This changed during the Renaissance, and tonal music began to grow, bringing new sounds and ideas to how music can be played and shared. This led to the development of new instruments as well, leading to new sounds and innovations. Popular instruments of the time included the guitar, recorder, flute, trumpet, and trombone. The rise of established performers also grew during this time. One such composer was Josquin des Prez, who was a well-known composer of both church music and secular music. His works were taught in music schools as examples of Renaissance harmony and notation and held in high regard during the time (MasterClass, 2020).   Entertainment during this time was similar to earlier time periods. Plays, shows, dances, and games were very popular among all people regardless of class. These plays would often recount historical events or popular fables of the time. Being that this was a time of rapid intellectual development and discoveries, writing rapidly grew during this time. Plays were written down and books were created and could be shared with others, with the most notable playwright being William Shakespeare. Public celebrations, feasts, carnivals, and pageants were also common, often featuring costumes and music. Art grew during this period, with many new sculptures, drawings, paintings, and more being created and observed during this time period.   Modern Age Music As time went on, the culture of music continued to change. In the 19th century, African Americans developed music culture through the creation of the blues and jazz. This music was derived from slavery, and the deep emotional response many of the songs elicited shared the pain and suffering experienced by many. As jazz developed in New Orleans in the 20th century, it brought together musicians of all backgrounds, mixing European instruments and African rhythms (Sutherland, 2024). Popular artists like Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and others transformed the landscape of music culture in the United States.   The evolution of rock and roll brought yet another new sound to the world of music. Rock and roll artists like Elvis Presley mixed their catchy songs with energetic performances to bring crowds to life. With the rise of television and radio, rock ‘n’ roll reached mass audiences, influencing fashion, dance, and lifestyle (Sutherland, 2024). This genre was particularly influential to teenagers who viewed this music as a form of rebellion and freedom.   As time went on, music continued to change to fit the needs of the society in which it exists. Festivals like Woodstock in 1969 personified these changes in music, culture, and activism, as thousands of people gathered to celebrate music while calling for an end to war (Sutherland, 2024). Today, concerts and music festivals remain very popular, and thousands and thousands of people will attend them to see their favorite artist or band. As the size and number of music platforms have grown, so too has the number of artists people can interact with. Platforms like Spotify, Apple Music, and YouTube make it possible for people to access millions of songs at the click of a button, while social media allows artists to interact with their fans in real-time (Sutherland, 2024).   Modern age entertainment The invention of the television revolutionized entertainment, introducing new ways in which music, shows, sports, and more can be shared and observed. The development of movies allowed individuals to insert themselves into a story in ways that were not available before. Video games, streaming platforms, and social media have continued to emerge as new avenues for engagement, offering interactive experiences and unprecedented connectivity (Matt, n.d.). With the development of streaming platforms, television channels, and more, people have a variety of shows, movies, sports, news, and more to enjoy at the click of a button. Many TVs now come with services such as Netflix and Hulu already installed, while other streaming apps can be downloaded on smart devices as needed (Smith, 2021). As a whole, the rise of television has transformed how individuals are able to be entertained, connecting large portions of the globe to shows and sporting events.   Conclusion Music and other forms of entertainment have existed since the beginning of time as ways in which people can enjoy themselves. As time has gone on, the way these are enjoyed has changed drastically. Early civilizations placed heavy emphasis on religion and spiritual performances, while today there is a much broader range of topics and genres of music that can be listened to and enjoyed. The development of musical notation, the rise of public performances, and the introduction of new instruments and genres laid a foundation for the diversity we see today. The rise of streaming platforms and other technological developments has paved the way for both music and entertainment to grow. As we continue advancing into the future, music and entertainment will remain key pieces of the human experience, bringing communities together and shaping society.   Sources Becker, L. (2024, December 22). The Role of Music in Ancient Cultures: A Journey Through Time and Tradition - Ancient History Guide . Ancient History Guide. https://ancienthistoryguide.com/the-role-of-music-in-ancient-cultures/ Chakra, H. (2022, December 8). What People Did To Entertain Themselves In The Middle Ages - About History . AboutHistory. https://about-history.com/medieval-entertainment/#google_vignette Kelsey Museum. (n.d.). Music in the Greek and Roman World . Exhibitions.kelsey.lsa.umich.edu . https://exhibitions.kelsey.lsa.umich.edu/galleries/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/GreekRoman/GreekRoman.html Mark, J. (2017, May 19). Music & Dance in Ancient Egypt . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1075/music--dance-in-ancient-egypt/ MasterClass. (2020). Renaissance Era Music Guide: A History of Renaissance Music - 2024 - MasterClass . MasterClass. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/renaissance-music-guide Matt. (n.d.). The Evolution of Entertainment: Past, Present, and Beyond . Mattshotspot.com . https://mattshotspot.com/The-Evolution-of-Entertainment-Past-Present-and-Beyond.php Smith, C. (2021, December 1). A brief history of the evolution of TV: From the 1920s to the 2020s . KnowTechie. https://knowtechie.com/a-brief-history-of-the-evolution-of-tv-from-the-1920s-to-the-2020s/ Sutherland, J. (2024). Music and Culture: History and Impact of Music on Society . Band Pioneer. https://bandpioneer.com/advice/music-and-culture-history-and-impact-of-music-on-society

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction This research paper will serve to outline the key changes in dentistry throughout time, highlighting some of the major time periods and empires within history. The paper will walk through techniques, beliefs surrounding dental care, and provide images of ancient tools and procedures. The progression through time will be as follows: Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 18 th - 19 th  century, and lastly modern-day 20 th  - 21 st century dentistry.   Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) In Ancient Egypt, dental care was primarily handled by priests and scribes, representing the close association that ancient societies placed between health and religion. They believed that dental issues were very often the result of spiritual imbalances or supernatural forces that plagued the individual. One example is the famous ‘tooth worms’, which were thought to cause decay in the teeth of individuals, leading to very painful treatments to rid the individual of them. With regards to dental tools and techniques, evidence from mummified remains shows that Egyptians used basic dental tools and herbal remedies to alleviate pain and stabilize teeth. For example, gold wires were used to bind loose teeth to prevent them from falling out (BiologyInsights Team, 2025). Oral infections were treated by various herb and spice mixes, most notably cumin, incense, onion, myrrh, camphor, and cinnamon. They created a tooth cleansing powder made from mint, salt, pepper, and dried iris flowers. The Egyptians also developed breath mints, mixing herbs and spices with honey (San-Aset, 2020). Although innovative, many of the Ancient Egyptian dental practices were basic and not widely effective, with much of the focus on pain management rather than actual prevention or curing of the root problem.   The following is an image of the gold wiring technique used to keep teeth in place by the Ancient Egyptians. Ancient Greece (800 BCE – 150 BCE) Ancient Greek philosophers, like Hippocrates and Aristotle, began widely incorporating dentistry into their wider understanding of medicine. Dentists of the time were physicians and philosophers who explored the causes of dental issues. It was widely believed that diseases and dental conditions were connected with imbalances in bodily fluids. Hippocrates, often referred to as the "Father of Medicine," described dental ailments, emphasizing preventive care. He recommended the use of specific herbal remedies to manage oral diseases, highlighting the importance of diet and hygiene in maintaining dental health (Olden Tech Editorial, 2023). This was a period of massive growth in knowledge, with the Greeks spending large amounts of time studying anatomy and the root causes of dental issues. Their exploration into the causes of tooth decay and gum disease fostered a greater understanding and appreciation for oral pathology (Olden Tech Editorial, 2023). With this increase in knowledge, the Greeks performed simple extractions and used gold wires to stabilize teeth, like the Ancient Egyptians did. Additionally, herbs were used to create rinses to clean teeth, soothe pain, and freshen breath. During this period of time, dentistry was not a unique field but integrated into the general medical practice, emphasizing its importance in the greater medical sphere.   An image of some of the dental tools from Ancient Greece. Many are similar to those of the Ancient Egyptians, with similar gold wiring techniques used as well. Roman Empire (500 BCE – 450 CE) The Romans continued to advance dental care with the utilization of practical techniques and tools. They relied on barber-surgeons who performed tooth extractions using forceps and used rudimentary fillings to repair cavities. During Ancient Roman times, doctors performed tooth extractions. Dentures were made using boxwood, bone, or ivory. Extractions relied on crude forceps. Based on the Twelve Tables of Roman legislation, we also know that gold was used on teeth during the time (Lentz, 2022). In addition to these techniques, the Romans placed a heavy emphasis on oral hygiene. They created makeshift toothbrushes, toothpaste, mouthwashes, and more. Frayed twigs of aromatic woods like cinnamon and olive were used as toothbrushes; eggshells, pumice, seashells, and more were used to create toothpaste; urine, vinegar, and other mixes were used to create mouthwashes for the Romans to use (Hawryluk, 2023). Like the Ancient Egyptians, the Romans were not focused on identifying the root causes of dental pain and instead were focused on relieving immediate pain and providing functionality. As a result of this, tooth loss was a common issue due to the extensive use of lead in cookware and cosmetics, where teeth were replaced with human or animal teeth using gold or silver wires to keep them in place (Hawryluk, 2023). With the high levels of pain, Ancient Romans turned to Apollonia, the patron saint for those suffering from toothaches (Lentz, 2022). As a whole, the Ancient Roman dental system made several procedural advances in the field, prioritizing pain remedies and immediate treatment plans.   An image of forceps the Roman Empire may have used for tooth extractions: Middle Ages (500 CE – 1500 CE) During the period of time termed the Middle Ages, dental care saw some regressions as much of the general medical and dental knowledge from earlier civilizations was lost. Dental providers were referred to as ‘barbers’ and made up two different groups, barber-surgeons and lay-barbers. Barber-surgeons were educated and trained to perform complex operations, while lay-barbers would help with more routine services. Like earlier civilizations, dental providers of the time performed extractions and other basic procedures. They were also heavily involved in creating dental hygiene products like tooth powders and chewing sticks. Herbal ingredients played a substantial role in tooth powders, with substances like sage, mint, myrrh, cloves, and cinnamon commonly used. Abrasive components were often added to these tooth powders to aid in the cleaning process, such as crushed shells or ground charcoal. Salt was another key component of tooth powder as it was believed to have antibacterial properties and reduce oral infections (Hodges, 2023). During this time, it was common for barber-surgeons to use methods like cauterization and bloodletting, the latter reflecting the belief that dental issues are a result of bodily imbalances. Lastly, near the end of the Middle Ages, laws began being implemented preventing lay-barbers from practicing complex dental procedures and requiring barber-surgeons to pass examinations.    Here is an image of a medieval toothbrush that is made of bone. Renaissance (1400 – 1700 CE) The Renaissance period marked strong growth in scientific inquiry, with dentistry emerging as a distinct discipline. This was a period with many individuals conducting large amounts of research and gaining a deeper understanding of the body and its makeup. The first anatomy books were published during this time with images of each component. Dental care was provided by barber-surgeons, who during this time made strong advancements in tooth replacement and fillings. This marked a significant shift in dentistry, with previous care centered around treating immediate pain while Renaissance providers focused on restoring and replacing damaged or lost teeth. They developed methods for filling teeth plagued with cavities and built early forms of dentures. Additionally, they used and improved tools like the dental pelican, which was used for dental extractions. Overall, this period saw a shift from purely practical treatments to a more scientific approach, though pain management remained basic and yet to be understood.   18 th – 19 th  Century This period saw the emergence of specialized dentists. After all that was learned during the Renaissance era, dentistry was recognized as a specialized profession. Pierre Fauchard, regarded as ‘The Father of Modern Dentistry,’ introduced complex techniques for treating oral diseases. His contributions include the treatment of tooth decay and the utilization/creation of more advanced dental prosthetics. He took materials like ivory and human teeth to make dentures, fixing them with gold wire and waxed thread (Aksoy et al., 2024). Additionally, he pioneered the invention of cavity fillings using metals, including lead, tin, and gold for dental fillings. He found that removing all traces of caries (tooth decay) before filling in the tooth would strengthen it (Aksoy et al., 2024). This became a cornerstone for modern dentistry and is still a practice followed today. Fauchard also heavily relied on specialized tools like drills and cauterizers to repair, replace, and treat oral problems. Fauchard was among the first to dismiss the idea that worms in teeth caused decay, instead attributing dental caries to acids derived from sugar (Aksoy et al., 2024). His work and others like it during this time greatly revolutionized the way dental care was provided, building the framework for modern dentistry. Another notable discovery of the time was anesthesia, discovered in the 19th century. This allowed for dental procedures to be less painful. Additionally, improved methods of filling cavities and making dentures were created and refined, making them more accessible to the lower/middle classes.   Here is an image of some of the tools Pierre Fauchard would have used in his procedures. 20 th  – 21 st Century This is the modern day of dentistry, where dentists, orthodontists, and other specialized dentists provide all of the care. One of the major evolutions of the time was the addition of dental X-rays. The first case of using X-rays in dental practices was done by C. Edmund Kells in 1896; however, the widespread use of dental X-rays was not implemented until the late 1950s (Brazdo, 2018). Additionally, fluoride was first added to toothpaste in the 1950s, completely changing the way dental care was performed, reducing cavities significantly (National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 2000). Crowns, root canals, and braces became standard procedures with the development of materials, including porcelain and resins, which greatly improved dental restorations. With so many new inventions and discoveries made, dental care shifted from pain management to prevention, understanding that dental care plays a role in overall health and well-being. The invention of smart toothbrushes, teeth whitening strips, flossers, and more has allowed for dental hygiene unlike ever before. As dentistry continues to grow and advance, it is expected that technology will continue to play a big part. Dental surgeries can utilize 3D printing, laser technology, and more to provide well-rounded treatments and procedures, yielding a holistic model of care for the patient.    Here is an image of dental X-rays: Conclusion The history of dentistry reflects society's ongoing pursuit of better health. This has evolved from early efforts to prevent pain to the current methods of preventative and restorative care. Reliance on spiritual beliefs shaped early civilizations, with later technological advancements yielding new changes and methods of care. Influential figures like Hippocrates, Pierre Fauchard, and modern pioneers helped shift dental care from a reactive to a proactive practice. As we move into the future, advancements in digital technology, artificial intelligence, and bioengineering are primed to further revolutionize dentistry, making treatments more precise, accessible, and patient-centered.   Sources Aksoy, U., Aksoy, S., Dilan Kırmızı, & Kaan Orhan. (2024). Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761): Pioneering Dental Surgeon of the Enlightenment Age. Cureus . https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.69563 BiologyInsights Team. (2025, February 12). Ancient Egyptian Dentistry: Tools, Treatments, and Beliefs . BiologyInsights. https://biologyinsights.com/ancient-egyptian-dentistry-tools-treatments-and-beliefs/ Brazdo, Dr. M. (2018, July 24). The Evolution of Dental X-Rays . Artistic Touch Dentistry; Artistic Touch Dentistry. https://www.artistictouchdentistry.com/general-dentistry/the-evolution-of-dental-x-rays/ Hawryluk, D. A. (2023, August 10). Exploring Ancient Roman Dental Health . St. Lawrence Dentistry. https://www.stlawrencedentistry.com/blog/dental-health/exploring-ancient-roman-dental-health-a-glimpse-into-the-past/ Hodges, P. (2023). Dental Hygiene Practices of the Middle Ages. Medieval Historia . https://doi.org/1025161/74749 Lentz, K. (2022, December 8). A Look Back at Dentistry in Ancient Rome . American Dental. https://atooth.com/a-look-back-at-dentistry-in-ancient-rome/ National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. (2000). The Story of Fluoridation | National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research . Nih.gov . https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/health-info/fluoride/the-story-of-fluoridation Olden Tech Editorial. (2023, July 2). Exploring Ancient Dental Care Practices Throughout History - Olden Tech . The Insurance Universe. https://oldentech.com/ancient-dental-care/ San-Aset. (2020, April 3). Magical Herbal Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians . Iseum Sanctuary. https://iseumsanctuary.com/2020/04/02/magical-herbal-medicine-of-the-ancient-egyptians/

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction This paper will aim to outline some of the key changes and innovations in medicine through time. It will dive through major periods and empires within history, ending with the modern age of medicine. The paper will include beliefs surrounding medicine at the time, techniques used, and discuss ancient tools and procedures. The following periods will be evaluated: Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, Ancient China, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 18 th  - 19 th century, and lastly modern-day 20 th  - 21 st  century medicine.    Mesopotamia (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) In ancient Mesopotamia, medicine was directly intertwined with religion, with the gods overseeing every aspect of daily living. Gula , the  Sumerian  goddess of healing, guided doctors and dentists in the treatment of health problems, which were typically attributed to supernatural causes (Mark, 2023). Doctors of ancient Mesopotamia were believed to work through the deities to protect the health of others, utilizing herbs, rituals, omens, etc., to perform their treatments. Generally, the path to becoming a doctor was long, taking 10-12 years, and requiring one to become a scribe, learn cuneiform script, and master the curriculum (Mark, 2023). There were two different types of doctors, an asu and an asipu. An asu was a medical doctor treating illness or injury empirically, while an asipu was a healer who relied on magic (Mark, 2023). With the reliance on religion, a doctor could do everything right but still have their patient die. This was often attributed to a god being angry with that individual, where even if one god is pleased, an angry god could yield poor health outcomes. Another interesting factor was that service fees were based on a sliding scale of one’s social status. A doctor treating a prince or wealthy person may be paid in gold, whereas pay from a poor individual may include a clay cup or food. Regardless, all of the evidence states that prescriptions and treatments were given equitably, disregarding social status.   Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE – 500 BCE) Ancient Egyptians made great advancements in the field of medicine, understanding that diseases could be treated and the importance of cleanliness when treating patients. Injuries were easy to understand in ancient Egypt; disease was a bit more difficult. When someone was injured, there was a plain cause and an effect which could then be treated; when a person was sick, however, the cause was less clear and so the diagnosis was more problematic (Mark, 2017). Although there was a strong understanding of the basis of medicine, it was still believed that the root cause of sickness was the consequence of sin and demonic attack. To treat patients, Egyptian doctors used a variety of methods. Doctors used incantations, amulets, offerings, aromas, and more to either drive away the ghost or demon, placate the god or gods who had sent the illness, or invoke protection from a higher power (Mark, 2017). Doctors were believed to be pure in spirit and body, protected by greater powers and were classified as either swnw , general practitioners, or  sau , whose specialty was in the use of magic (Mark, 2017). Doctors were also comfortable performing surgeries and more advanced treatments, and based on evidence obtained from mummies, show a high degree of success. The Egyptians used tools including a  metal  scalpel, dental pliers, a bone saw, probes, the catheter, clamps for stopping blood flow, specula, forceps, lancets for opening veins, sponges, scissors, phials, bandages of linen, and scales for weighing the proper amount of raw materials to mix for medicines (Mark, 2017). Lastly, the Ancient Egyptians wrote large amounts of information about early treatment of medical conditions, showing an advanced understanding of the conditions for the time. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) treats cancer (stating there is no treatment), heart disease, diabetes, birth control, and depression, while the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE) is the oldest work on surgical techniques (Mark, 2017). These writings helped mold the future of medical understanding, setting the basis for future Greek and Roman advancements.   Ancient India (1500 BCE – 500 CE) In Ancient India, the primary methodology of medical care was a form of healing called Ayurveda, meaning knowledge of life. There are two treatments in Ayurveda: purification therapy (Shodhana) and alleviating/palliative therapy (Shamana Chikitsa). Shodhana treatment attacks dangerous doshas, which cause life-threatening illnesses, while Shamana therapy uses Ayurvedic medicines (Kalla, 2021). During the sixth century BC, a sage known as Sushruta—the “father of surgery”—documented more than 1,100 diseases, catalogued the use of medical herbs, and wrote directives for performing many surgical procedures, including rhinoplasty and skin grafts (Kalla, 2021). Early practitioners of Ayurveda were sages who were connected with faith and considered health an important part of basic human life. These sages would advise on nutrition and use herbs as part of their treatment. Ancient India utilized and built upon Ancient Egypt’s medical findings, utilizing their faith-based approach to healing.   Ancient China (1500 BCE – 220 CE) In Ancient China, the traditional model of medical care was the cosmic theory of yin-yang. The male yang principle is active and light, while the female yin principle is passive and dark. A strong emphasis was placed on the human body, with it being made of five elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Health, character, and the success of all political and private ventures were determined by the yin or the yang, and ancient Chinese medicine aimed to control their proportions in the body (Fercility, 2019). Popular medical treatments and procedures conducted by healers and doctors included acupuncture, moxibustion, and herbal remedies. One of the most notable medical texts from this period is called The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon, which presented views on the human body and how it connected to the yin-yang, five elements, and Qi. Ancient China was composed of several dynasties, each with its own specific viewpoints on medicine, politics, religion, etc. The Shang people were religious and believed illness resulted from upsetting an ancestor, being cursed, or an evil demon entering the body (Mortlock, 2020). They relied on shamans to conduct medical care, utilizing rituals to talk to ancestors to find answers as to the cause of the illness or pain. Another notable text was The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, which described bodily anatomy, the blood and circulation, physiology, pathology, diagnosis and treatment, acupuncture, and more (Mortlock, 2020).   Ancient Greece (800 BCE – 150 BCE) In Ancient Greece, illness was typically viewed as divine punishment, while healing was a gift bestowed by the gods. By the 5th century BCE, there were attempts to identify the material causes for illnesses rather than spiritual ones, leading to a move away from superstition towards scientific enquiry (Cartwright, 2018). With the shift to scientific understanding of medicine, anatomy and physiology were widely studied, mostly as a side effect of studying wounded soldiers from ongoing battles and wars during the time. None of these developments were more important than the creation and development of the Hippocratic Oath, which is still recited by all doctors today. While the words of the oath have changed over time, the general sentiment of doctors doing their best to promote patient health resounds. Like other ancient civilizations, much of medical care still utilized herbs to care for mental and physical health concerns.   Roman Empire (500 BCE – 450 CE) The Roman Empire built upon the findings of the Greeks, placing a large emphasis on public health and infrastructure. They recognized the negative side effects of poor town/city hygiene, building aqueducts, sewers, and baths to promote cleaner cities and individuals. This reduced the amount of sewage in the streets and the sickness that prevailed. The Romans created many pills that were made of herbs and plants and used to treat colds and sicknesses. An example of this was a pill used to treat bad coughs made from saffron, myrrh,  pepper , costmary, galbanum, cinnamon, castoreum, and poppy tears (Cartwright, 2013). Like other civilizations, surgery was largely avoided due to the risks involved and the amount of anatomy yet to be discovered and understood. However, many medical treatments were still employed. Sophisticated operations were carried out, including the removal of cataracts, draining of fluids, trephination, and even the reversal of circumcision. Wounds were stitched following surgery using flax, linen thread, or metal pins, and dressings of linen bandages or sponges were used (Cartwright, 2013).   Middle Ages (500 CE – 1500 CE) Medicine during the Middle Ages relied on the findings of earlier civilizations and religion. There tended to be very few doctors during this time, with few universities to study at, leading to many suffering horrible fates. As a result of the lack of doctors, many visited apothecaries or other alternative healers who heavily used herbal remedies for treatment. Although much of the medical practice during the early part of the Middle Ages was primitive, Islamic scholars around 10 CE started to make some advancements. Notable scholar Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī built upon Galen and Hippocrates' work from Ancient Greece and Rome. He believed that medicine should focus on treating patients individually as opposed to placing them into set groupings. He also believed that diet and hygiene played a larger role in medicine than previously thought. He is also credited as being the first to distinguish the difference between smallpox and measles – two diseases that had the potential to spread quickly and kill (BBC, n.d.). While much was learned during this period of time, there were still many limitations in knowledge, as highlighted by epidemics like the Bubonic Plague. Even though there were many difficulties during this time, the shift to individual, patient-centered medicine was further highlighted as the most effective approach, setting the basis for how medical care is still provided today.    Renaissance (1400 – 1700 CE) The Renaissance was a period of great growth and innovation in culture, arts, medicine, and more. This was a period of curiosity, where many medical practitioners dove deeper into their studies. The creation of the printing press allowed for the mass production of medical information and texts. Additional new technologies emerged as well, with new techniques and tools to treat medical conditions. Even with all of the new developments, much of medical care was essentially the same. There were still large information gaps, with methods of diagnosis not greatly improving from previous civilizations. Physicians still were unsure how to cure infectious diseases, and when faced with the plague or syphilis, they regularly turned to superstitious rites and magic (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). However, advancements in disease management were developed, namely the creation of vaccines. Edward Anthony Jenner, an English doctor and scientist, is known as the pioneer of vaccinations and created the smallpox vaccine (The MNT Editorial Team, 2018). Generally, the Renaissance period was a time of innovation and curiosity, with many scholars and medical professionals devoting time and resources to learning more about the body and how each of its parts works. The findings of individuals like Leonardo Da Vinci and others helped launch modern-day medicine.   18 th – 19 th  Century The 18th to 19th centuries were a time of great growth and knowledge. This was the marked start of specific medical fields and doctors having a specialty that they spent their life learning about. Some notable developments were the beginnings of the science of modern pathology, the invention of the stethoscope, the invention of germ theory, and the development of a robust understanding of human anatomy. By the 19th century, the structure of the  human body  was almost fully known, due to new methods of microscopy and injections. Even the body’s microscopic structure was understood (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). One of the most spectacular discoveries was the identification that small living organisms cause specific diseases (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Famous medical personnel and scientists include Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister. Pasteur is credited with establishing the science of bacteriology, proving that the fermentation of wine was due to living microorganisms. Joseph Lister introduced the antiseptic principle into surgery, promoting improved medical hygiene and surgical outcomes. Lastly, general anesthesia was developed, which freed patients from pain due to surgery and allowed surgeons to perform more extensive operations. Overall, this period of time was crucial, with many advancements in both techniques, tools, knowledge, and more.   20 th – 21 st  Century The 20th to 21st century experienced another explosion of medical innovations. Antibiotics revolutionized infection treatment, technologies like X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs transformed diagnostics, vaccines helped eradicate diseases, and modern hospitals and specialized fields drastically improved patient care. The greater understanding and mapping of the genome has allowed for an even more robust understanding. Electron microscopy allowed researchers to look deeper into the structures of the cell, revealing clues to their functions (Richardson & Guthrie, 2025). Organ transplants, increased numbers of medications, and improved knowledge have further revolutionized medicine. Developments in patient care have promoted better health outcomes, with safer and more sanitary operating rooms. This section of the research cannot possibly highlight all of the major discoveries and advancements of the 20 th  to 21 st  century, as more is developed and discovered every day. In all, this period has led to much improved health outcomes, with fewer deaths due to surgery, fewer infections, and a more robust understanding of the body and how to treat problems that arise. Conclusion The field of medicine has drastically changed over time. Early emphasis on religion influencing health outcomes placed an increased importance on spiritual leaders within society. As more knowledge was discovered and advanced medications and techniques developed, medicine continued to change. New vaccines and pills prevented deaths and yielded longer life spans with improved health outcomes. New technologies have allowed for more advanced procedures and life-saving measures. As a whole, the advancement of medical knowledge and practice has transformed how people live, reducing young deaths and encouraging future medical discoveries.   Sources BBC. (n.d.). Medicine in the Middle Ages, 500CE to 1500CE . BBC Bitesize. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zwqqm39/articles/zk4nf82#zkmybqt Cartwright, M. (2013, October 26). Roman Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Medicine/ Cartwright, M. (2018, April 11). Ancient Greek Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Medicine/ Fercility. (2019). The History of Chinese Medicine . China Highlights. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-medicine/history.htm Kalla, K. (2021). History of medicine in ancient India - Hektoen International . Hekint.org . https://hekint.org/2021/08/27/history-of-medicine-in-ancient-india/ Mark, J. (2017, February 17). Egyptian Medicine . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Medicine/ Mark, J. J. (2023, January 25). Medicine in Ancient Mesopotamia . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/687/medicine-in-ancient-mesopotamia/ Mortlock, S. (2020, September 3). A history of Chinese medicine . Biomedical Scientist. https://thebiomedicalscientist.net/2020/09/03/history-chinese-medicine Richardson, R., & Guthrie, D. (2025, February 8). History of medicine - Verification of the germ theory . Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory The MNT Editorial Team. (2018, November 2). Medieval and Renaissance medicine: Practice and developments (D. Murrell, Ed.). Www.medicalnewstoday.com . https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323533#vaccination

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout time, transportation has changed as technology has developed alongside it. As technology advanced, so too did transportation, revolutionizing how individuals are able to move around the globe. From the earliest forms of human movement to the advanced technologies of the 21st century, transportation has evolved to meet the changing needs of people and industries. These developments have facilitated new modes of trade, communication, and cultural exchange. This paper will dive into the major changes that have taken place with regard to transportation and how they have impacted society.   Key Timeline of transportation 4000 BC - Horses and camels are domesticated and used for transport. 3500 BC - Fixed wheels on carts are invented. 3500 BC - River boats are invented. 2000 BC - First chariots are built. 312 BC - Paved roads are built by the Romans. 1783 - First hot air balloon launched. 1801 - The first Steam road locomotive is run. 1814 - The first steam-powered railway train is built by George Stephenson. 1816 - The earliest bicycle is made. 1904 - The Wright Brothers fly the first motor-driven airplane. 1908 - First Ford Cars manufactured. 1957 - First man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, launched into orbit. 1981 - First flight of the space shuttle lifts off, 20 years after the first manned space flight .   All dates and information came from (twinkl, 2021).   The wheel While no single person or civilization is credited with the development of the wheel, it is believed that its creation dates as far back as the ancient Sumerians. The earliest wheels were made by inserting rotating axles into smooth, solid wooden discs (Tolentino, 2023). Its development marked a turning point in history, with new travel, farming, and military uses. This made way for horse and carriage travel, moving away from walking being the sole form of travel to new methods of transporting goods throughout towns and countries.   With the development of the wheel, new roads were needed to foster improved travel conditions. Transport of people and goods in those times was done with carts that were pulled by animals. Engineers quickly noticed that animals would spend much less energy if the cart traveled on a predetermined path, without the possibility for steering over uneven terrain (Train History, 2025). These paved roads allowed for more efficient travel, communication, and trade, contributing to urbanization, improved military maneuvers, and enhanced transport efficiency (twinkl, 2021). The development of the wheel led to new infrastructure needs and ultimately helped civilizations grow. With the improved means of trade, cities had access to materials and goods that allowed them to build improved houses, farms, and other infrastructure, improving their livelihoods.   Hot air balloon In 1783, the first hot air balloon was developed in France. Early balloons were made of paper and cloth and fueled by fire heated inside, causing the balloon to swell and rise off the ground. The balloon would be attached to a basket woven together, allowing a passenger to get in and direct the movement of the balloon. While hot air balloons had practical uses, they were mostly symbols of innovation, freedom, and culture, leading expeditions and displaying the progress of their countries. Hot air balloons have influenced imagination around the world, inspiring works of art, literature, and music (history tools, 2024). This is observed in many movies seen today, where hot air balloons are shown with beautiful, vibrant colors. While hot air balloons are not the most popular form of travel or the most convenient, they remain a popular tourist attraction in many parts of the world. Trains and Steamboats The Industrial Revolution transformed the entire makeup of the American economy. This shift from rural to urban living generated the shift from producing goods for self-use to producing goods for sale on the market. The industrial revolution led to the transportation revolution, which involved the creation of bridges, canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). The development of the train system and steamboats revolutionized how the United States was able to transport goods.   The creation of the steamboat transformed how goods and services could be shared throughout the country. With many crops and goods being generated in specific geographic regions of the country, without proper transportation, these goods were isolated to those particular people. For example, farmers living in the West often had no way to transport their goods to other areas due to land barriers, like mountains, and a lack of transportation options (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). This transformed the economy of the country, creating more jobs in running, maintaining, and producing these steamboats and other transportation systems. Steamboats used massive amounts of wood for fuel, and people living along rivers had opportunities to develop new businesses of wood processing (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). This led to the creation of refueling stops, generating even more jobs for individuals to get involved in. In addition to the increase in jobs and the increased production of goods, the development of steamboats led to improved cultural diffusion. This diffusion was largely spread by crewmates and passengers of the ships. As crewmates reached new ports, they would go out and meet different people, spreading ideas, values, and culture through travel. News and ideas traveled through the various steamboat ports and led to an increase in communication among the different regions of the United States (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2024). Passengers were able to go to new areas of the country, meeting people from different countries and experiencing different geographies. As a whole, the creation of the steamboat helped bridge the East and West.   Trains were around before the Industrial Revolution, with early locomotives being developed in the early 1800s. The first trains could pull  25 tons and 70 people, showing others that they had a use in society and did have the necessary power to transport goods and people across long distances. The commercialization of trains came in the 1820s, with steam locomotives proving to be the most reliable and powerful. As train technology rapidly grew over the first few decades, urban engineers in London started formulating the first plans for inter-city railway tracks and underground tunnels. This marked the beginning of the new era of urban  transit  systems, with underground Metros now appearing across the entire world (Train History, 2025). This helped generate new growth across cities and towns throughout the U.S., promoting improved cooperation, providing new opportunities, and fostering new designs and developments. As of today, trains remain one of the most important ways of getting people around, with large cities relying on them to transport millions of people every day.   Airplanes and Helicopters Many of the earliest ideas of flight trace back to Ancient Greek mythology, namely the story of Icarus and how he flew too close to the sun. This early story depicted how Icarus aimed to fly away like a bird, using feathers and wax on his arms, yet he flew too close to the sun, the wax melted, and he fell back to earth. These early ideas of flight continued to develop into later periods, namely the Renaissance, where Leonardo da Vinci wrote about designs for potential mechanical flying machines. Among da Vinci’s drawn sketches are flying machines and aeronautical contraptions, such as ornithopters with mechanically driven flapping wings imitating the flight of birds, along with drawings similar to those of a helicopter (Leishman, 2023). At the beginning of the 19th century,  George Cayley , an English nobleman and scientist, proposed various aircraft concepts, including gliders, types of airplanes, and a primitive helicopter (Leishman, 2023). These early models helped pave the way for later flying machines. He also identified some of the fundamentals of flight, namely lift, thrust, weight, and drag.   While others added designs and ideas to flight, the first to fly were the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, in 1903. The flight consisted of a powered biplane aircraft that took off and landed under the control of its pilot. Notably, the Wright brothers designed and built the engine and propellers to power their aircraft, understanding how to integrate the essential components of an airplane and then make it work as a system   (Leishman, 2023). They improved their designs and tested them using a wind tunnel they built. Here, they were able to study the aerodynamics of the wings when shaped differently, ultimately creating a wing and plane that was best suited to fly. For years, the Wright brothers developed their aircraft designs, and by 1908, their aircraft could fly for two hours and cover 100 miles (Leishman, 2023). As time went on, the uses of flight have grown, including warfare, private use, commercial travel, transportation, and more. As time continues on, planes and helicopters continue to be developed, becoming more advanced with respect to usefulness, speed, stealth, etc.   Cars The development and widespread availability of cars as sources of transportation revolutionized the 1900s. The first motorized car was invented by Karl Benz in 1886, with early inventors laying the foundation for the future mass production of cars (Tolentino, 2023b). After significant technological advances, including the steamboat and railways, the next step was the production of personalized vehicles. Early models of car production were mostly independent with each car being carefully created at once before being sold off. It was not until Henry Ford that this model of car production changed. Ford revolutionized the industry by creating an assembly line where parts of a car were all brought together to a common factory mass-produced from there. This sped up the building process and reduced the cost of each car, making them more accessible to anyone who wanted to purchase one. As more cars were on the road, more developed highways and driving infrastructure were required. This radicalization of transportation allowed more people to travel independently and led to the development of extensive road networks, including the U.S. Interstate Highway System. As a whole, the development of cars has transformed daily living and allows for increased travel, trade, and socializing.   Conclusion As society has changed throughout time, so too has transportation. This has served as a driving force in shaping economies, societies, cultures, and more throughout all of history. From the development of the wheel for transporting people and goods, to trains and steamboats for trade, to hot air balloons for beauty, each of these developments has transformed how people live and connect. The growth of transportation has enabled cities to expand, ideas to spread, and cultures to interact in ways previously unimaginable. As technology and in turn transportation continue to change, so too will society, paving the way for future developments and innovations.   Sources history tools. (2024, May 26). The Fascinating History of Hot Air Balloons: From Ancient Sky Lanterns to Modern Marvels - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-fascinating-history-of-hot-air-balloons-from-ancient-sky-lanterns-to-modern-marvels#google_vignette Leishman, J. G. (2023). History of Aircraft & Aviation. Eaglepubs.erau.edu , 2 . https://doi.org/10.15394/eaglepub.2022.1066.n2 Oklahoma Historical Society. (2024). Steamboat Heroine . Www.okhistory.org ; Oklahoma Historical Society. https://www.okhistory.org/learn/steamboat1 Tolentino, C. (2023a, November 2). Who Invented the Wheel? History of the Wheel | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-wheel/ Tolentino, C. (2023b, November 8). Who Invented the Car? History of the Automobile and Motor Vehicles | History Cooperative . History Cooperative. https://historycooperative.org/who-invented-the-car/ Train History. (2025). History of Railroad - Development of Rail Transport . Trainhistory.net . https://www.trainhistory.net/railway-history/railroad-history/#google_vignette twinkl. (2021). Transportation . Twinkl.com.au . https://www.twinkl.com.au/teaching-wiki/transportation

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Throughout history, laws and policies have evolved to reflect the values of society and address needs that are prevalent within that society. Legal frameworks have shifted from rigid systems based on hierarchy to dynamic, changing models that reflect an ever-changing world. This paper will walk through some of the key historical periods, analyzing the major laws of the time and their societal impacts.   Early Legal Systems and Codified Laws (3000 BCE – 500 CE) One of the earliest known legal systems was the Code of Ur-Nammu, written circa 2100 BCE – 2050 BCE by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu. Calling himself the father of his people, Ur-Nammu encouraged his people to think of themselves as one family and of his laws as the rules of a home (Mark, 2021). Punishments, excluding capital offenses, took the form of fines (Mark, 2021). As a whole, the Code of Ur-Nammu consisted of 57 laws mostly centered on property rights and personal safety. This included guidelines and punishments for murder, robbery, destruction of land and other property, and more. The next significant legal system is the Code of Hammurabi, written in 1754 BCE in Mesopotamia. This introduced the principle of ‘lex talionis,’ or ‘an eye for an eye.’ Unlike the Code of Ur-Nammu, the Code of Hammurabi was much more severe. Some of the key laws included: 1) If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out, 2) If he breaks another man's bone, his bone shall be broken, and 3) If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out (J. J. Mark, 2021). Much of this drastic shift in the framework of laws is represented by the change in the social environment. In earlier Sumerian-Akkadian times, all communities felt themselves to be members of the same family, all equal servants under the eyes of the gods (J. J. Mark, 2021). In such circumstances, disputes could be settled under a collectively accepted value system, where fair payments were more desirable than revenge (J. J. Mark, 2021).  However, when urban citizens rub shoulders with nomads following a different way of life, confrontation must be more tightly regulated, promoting personal safety and property protection for all. In 451-450 BCE in Rome, the Law of the Twelve Tables was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets. These laws represented the beginning of a new approach to law, writing them down and passing them on to future generations. An image of the recreation of the laws of the twelve tables can be seen below: The list of laws under the Twelve Tables mostly covered private law and focused strongly on the relationships between individuals as opposed to individuals versus the government. It focused heavily on agriculture and protecting individual property rights and safety. It also set clear punishments for crimes, as shown by receiving death by burning for those who committed arson. Lesser penalties for property damage were banishment from Rome, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of property (Cartwright, 2016). During this time, laws were modified and replaced as some laws became irrelevant and the need for new laws emerged. The Justinian Code was compiled under Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century CE. This code systematized Roman law and worked to align all decrees, laws, and policies, which had previously been inconsistently regulated. Law variations by region and inconsistent interpretations complicated the legal system, creating confusion during legal proceedings (LegalClarity Team, 2025). Emperor Justinian’s goal was to reform the legal system, restoring the Empire’s glory. His work resulted in the Corpus Juris Civilis, which included the Codex Justinianus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae Constitutiones. Together, these components formed a comprehensive legal framework. The Corpus Juris Civilis addressed the needs of the Roman legal system, the Codex Justinianus compiled imperial constitutions, the Digesta or Pandectae collected legal opinions and interpretations, and the Instititiones served as an educational guide (LegalClarity Team, 2025). This system of laws has provided a long-lasting foundation for the legal system, placing an emphasis on knowledge and education for all involved in the legal process. Medieval Period One of the most well-known societal systems during this time was feudalism. This was a 10th-13th century European system where hierarchy was established and based on a tiered system with kings at the top, followed by other nobles and wealthy landowners, and finally at the bottom, the serfs. Here is an image of a feudal pyramid: This system perpetuated the status quo, where serfs would work lands owned by others for basic conditions like housing and food. They worked, without pay, on the land owned or rented by others to produce food for themselves as well as food and profit for their masters (Cartwright, 2018). This led to the development of feudal contracts and laws generated to protect the serf-lord relationship, ensuring the relationship benefited the lords and prevented the serfs from rising against them. Another important legal framework generated during this time was Canon Law. Canon Law was the body of laws that governed the Christian Church and all of its members. When thinking about Canon Law in modern society, it is difficult to appropriately highlight the emphasis of this framework at the time. During this period, church and state were deeply intertwined with one another. It touched almost every aspect of medieval society, dealing with both religious matters and issues of a purely secular nature (Wei & Winroth, 2022). It involved the regulation of marriages, sorcery, penance, court procedure, Christian relations, and more (Peters & Eichbauer, 2012).   A third major development was the Magna Carta, created in 1215 CE, signed by King John of England.  It aimed to limit the king's power, protect individual rights, and establish foundational principles of governance, and is considered the foundation for the first constitutional government in England (Satheesh, 2023). It limited the power of the king and monarchy, establishing key legal principles such as due process and the right to a fair trial. It introduced provisions protecting individuals from arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, and punishment (Satheesh, 2023). As a whole, the Magna Carta introduced ideas that a ruler’s power should fall within legal and constitutional norms, laying the foundation for future government systems. The Enlightenment Period and the American Revolutionary War During the course of the Enlightenment period, politics, science, and more were radically changed. Enlightenment thinkers in Europe produced numerous books, inventions, laws, scientific discoveries, and more. The Early Enlightenment included key members such as Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and John Locke. Isaac Newton is most known for his work on gravity and other mathematical topics, while John Locke argued that human nature can change and knowledge can be gained through experience (Onion et al., 2009). Later periods of the Enlightenment were characterized by revolutions, i.e., the French and American revolutions. As a whole, the philosophers and deep thinkers of the time generated many ideas, leading to new government systems and the passing of new laws. The emphasis on liberty, equality, and justice set the stage for future civilization to build upon. The American Revolution was a time of drastic change, leading to the creation of the United States. This was a war between England and those living in the 13 colonies, rooted in liberty and the desire to self-rule. Liberty was a central theme as the revolutionaries sought to protect individual rights and freedoms from oppressive British rule. This was highlighted with the publishing of the Declaration of Independence, asserting that all individuals are entitled to ‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.’ The colonists viewed British taxation and policies as acts of tyranny, leading to the popular slogan "No taxation without representation," reflecting their demand for a voice in government decisions ( history-education.org , 2024). As a result of this, equality and self-governance were key goals of the revolution. The concept of popular sovereignty, the idea that government authority comes from the people, was strengthened with the publication of the Declaration of Independence. With the conclusion of the revolution, checks and balances were developed, preventing any one branch or group of people within government from becoming too powerful. Lastly, the publishing of the U.S. Constitution established the basis for rights and protections offered to U.S. citizens. These legal and political innovations, born out of the revolutionary struggle, continue to shape the foundation of the United States today.   Industrial Revolution and Civil Rights Movement The Industrial Revolution was a time of great importance, marking the end of rural society and the shift to a more urban-based environment. With these changes, there were many labor and housing problems that arose. Before the industrial revolution, families typically worked side-by-side on farms or in family shops. This turn to urban living led to the rise of factory work, yielding the end of family working and the rise of separating home from work. All members of the family might now work in different areas, men and sons in factories, with women and daughters in other service roles. Despite their importance to the industry’s output, women and children were paid very little and were regularly expected to work 16-hour days (Wilkinson, 2024). Their jobs were perceived as less skilled, although the working conditions were sometimes equally dangerous (Wilkinson, 2024). As time went on, many went on strike and spoke out about the harsh working and living conditions that were experienced. This led to labor laws being passed, limiting child labor, the hours one could work a day, wages, and many other aspects of working. Many of these laws have laid the infrastructure for labor laws today.             Another prominent movement during this time was the civil rights movement. The Civil Rights Act, passed in 1964, was a comprehensive piece of U.S. legislation that aimed to end discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. There are many sections to it, with some of the most important being titles I, IV, and VII. Title I guaranteed equal voting rights for all, removing biased procedures that disproportionately impacted minorities. Title IV called for the desegregation of schools, which was a popular topic during the time. Title VII banned discrimination by trade unions, schools, or employers involved in business with the federal government, pairing with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce this (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019). In all, much of the legislation and marches during this time led to the passing of legislation, although many facets of these laws are still being worked on today.             Many other movements took place during this time. This includes the women’s suffrage (right to vote) movement, leading to the passing of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote. The Americans with Disabilities Act was also passed, protecting the rights of individuals with disabilities and ensuring they have the right to employment. A third major movement was the passing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights passed by the United Nations, establishing global human rights standards. These are not all of the movements that took place, as this was a time of significant social justice reform and yielded lasting change for decades/centuries to follow. Modern Developments (21st Century)   With legal systems continuing to evolve, much of the modern emphasis is on environmental and social justice law. As the global world and community have changed through time, so too has the need for new types of legislation. With the rise of artificial tools, the need for individual security and privacy has risen, leading to the passing of many laws, including the General Data Protection Regulation passed by the European Union in 2018. Another rising concern is centered around the climate and regulating the amount of greenhouse gas emissions every year. Climate legislation, such as the Clean Air Act and Paris Agreement, have established both country-based and international commitments to reduce carbon emissions. In the United States, the Affordable Care Act (2010) expanded healthcare access and consumer protections. Legal recognition of LGBTQ+ rights culminated in the landmark Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) ruling, which legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. Many other laws and policies have been passed during the 21st century, with many more inevitably being passed in the future, highlighting the adaptability of the legal system as it evolves with society. Conclusion The evolution of laws and policies throughout the course of time reflects the concurrent change in society and its beliefs. From the earliest known laws and legal codes to modern legislative policies, legal frameworks have evolved. Key milestones, including the Code of Hammurabi, the Twelve Tables, the Magna Carta, the Enlightenment period, labor laws, and more, have shaped society as we know it today and continue to influence the development of law. The adaptability of the legal system is crucial for maintaining a fair and just society, and as new challenges emerge, the history of past actions will continue to serve as a foundation to build upon. Sources Cartwright, M. (2016, April 11). Twelve Tables . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Twelve_Tables/ Cartwright, M. (2018, November 22). Feudalism . World History Encyclopedia; World History Publishing. https://www.worldhistory.org/Feudalism/ Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Civil Rights Act | Summary, Facts, & History. In Encyclopædia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964 history-education.org . (2024, June 18). Key ideas of the American Revolution . History Education. https://history-education.org/2024/06/18/key-ideas-of-the-american-revolution/ LegalClarity Team. (2025, January 21). What Was Justinian’s Code and Why Is It Important in Law?  LegalClarity. https://legalclarity.org/what-was-justinians-code-and-why-is-it-important-in-law/ Mark, J. (2021, October 26). Code of Ur-Nammu . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Ur-Nammu/ Mark, J. J. (2021, June 24). Code of Hammurabi . World History Encyclopedia; World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Hammurabi/ Onion, A., Sullivan, M., Mullen , M., & Zapata, C. (2009, December 16). Enlightenment Period: Thinkers & Ideas | HISTORY . HISTORY. https://www.history.com/articles/enlightenment Peters, E., & Eichbauer, M. H. (2012). Canon Law . https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780195396584-0033 Satheesh, G. S. (2023). The Magna Carta: Origins, Significance, and Influence on English Law. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews , 10 (1). Wei, J. C., & Winroth, A. (2022). Medieval Canon Law: Introduction  (A. Winroth & J. C. Wei, Eds.). Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-medieval-canon-law/medieval-canon-law-introduction/B5DD73317FF615F2E6D98F5AA938F35A Wilkinson, F. (2024, November 15). Industrialization, Labor, and Life . National Geographic. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/industrialization-labor-and-life/

By Jacob Lindbert Introduction Education holds a pivotal role in society and has undergone significant changes over time. It has evolved from an informal, community-based structure to one driven by technology. These changes reflect the changes of society at large, with new advancements in communication, technology, etc. being developed. Early forms of education were verbal, sharing oral traditions and drawings. As time went on, classrooms were developed containing laptops and other smart technology. Alongside the new technology, new methods of teaching have been designed to address a diverse set of students. This paper will dive into the major changes in education over time and how technology and educational styles have changed through the ages.   Early Mesopotamia In Early Mesopotamian society, Sumerian temple schools represented the earliest organized educational institutions. These schools, often led by priests or senior scribes, aimed to share knowledge and cultural traditions with all children growing up in the area. Essential pillars of education involved written language and basic mathematical concepts, as both were viewed as essential for a temple to be properly run. Scribal training was a major part of education during the time. Students were comprised of young boys between 5 to 10 years old entering the school where they spent long periods of time, typically 10-20 years, copying dictations of cuneiform writing, commercial texts, hymns, and other important writings (history tools, 2024). Priests and students alike would study religious rituals, laws, and other key writings or proceedings of the time in efforts to promote continuous learning.   Sumerian temple schools left behind an abundance of evidence of their teaching, largely in the form of cuneiform tablets. Historians estimate that 80 percent of surviving tablets contain exercises teaching language mastery, 15 percent relate to mathematics, 5 percent law, and 0.5 percent astronomy (history tools, 2024). Many tablets also included completed student work with corrections and grades from instructors. This provides insight into early educational models and what was viewed as important information to teach.   Although there are observed differences in educational materials, many of the early education materials show unity, particularly with regard to religion. With education tightly connected to temple-learning, many of the schools were heavily influenced or directly managed by religious officials. Additionally, much of the learning was geared towards preparing students to serve in specific financial or scribal roles, creating future government and religious leaders.   Ancient Egypt In Ancient Egypt, education was structured and aimed to develop writing skills, mathematics, and religious knowledge. The system was largely set up to prepare students for roles in bureaucracy, priesthood, or other pivotal roles in society. School systems were broken down into two main categories: scribal and palace schools. Scribal school was a very prestigious form of education in Egypt and was reserved for scribes. Scribes would take classes, learning to read and write in hieroglyphics. Scribal schools were typically partnered with temples and government buildings where the students would be taught math, writing, and other necessary skills, before starting work in the connected temple or government office (The Archaeologist, 2025). Religion was a major part of the education system, where priests would pass down ways to perform rituals and how to interpret texts. This allowed information on moral instruction, the gods, and the afterlife to be passed from generation to generation. While not entirely separate from scribal schools, Egyptian palace schools were reserved for the elite noble children. Here, students would focus on hieroglyphic writing, mathematics, and priestly knowledge. Students contributed to community life through daily chores and labor, learning a variety of skills that would be useful in both their future daily and professional lives.   Ancient Greece In Ancient Greece, education was prioritized to produce good citizens as opposed to being solely available for the wealthy and elite. Children were trained in music, art, literature, science, math, and politics (Donn, n.d.). In cities like Athens, at 6 years old, boys would go to school, learning to read and write, play instruments, recite poetry, debate and give speeches, and study math and science. After high school, they would go off to military school and learn how to be soldiers. In all, it would take around 20 years for boys to make it through all of the allotted schooling. Schooling for girls was different, and they did not attend any formal educational settings. If their mother could read and write, daughters were taught how to do the same, along with learning how to cook, sew, and run a household (Donn, n.d.).   Schooling in Sparta was very different from the rest of Greece. In Sparta, education was solely in place to produce a powerful army. Spartan-born boys would enter military schools around 6 years old, where they learned how to read, write, and most importantly, fight. School was very tough, aimed at toughening the boys into war-ready individuals. They were often beaten, starved, and isolated in attempts to turn everything into a form of battle. Unlike the rest of Greece, Spartan girls would go to school, learning to be warriors. School was not as brutal as for the boys, but girls would still regularly wrestle, fist fight, and practice handling weapons. The Spartans believed that strong women produced strong babies, and when needed, women would assist in defending the city and their homes (Donn, n.d.).   Ancient Rome Roman education was different from prior civilizations. Ancient Rome did not have any official schools set up, and education relied on hiring private tutors or paying tuition fees for private schools. Wealthy families employed private tutors to teach their children at home, while less well-off children were taught in groups. This led to vastly different conditions for both students and teachers. Teachers who taught wealthy students were able to devote more attention to the individual student, along with typically having better access to educational tools. On the other hand, those teaching poorer children were able to devote less time per student and typically did not have extra access to educational materials. As a result, educational quality varied, as not all students received the same instruction or had equal access to tutoring services. Structured schools of the time relied solely on tuition fees paid by the parents of the students enrolled. Parents paid the school fees in installments at each term's end; however, if parents lacked the money to pay or were unhappy with their child’s progress, teachers would be left financially vulnerable (McCormack, 2023). This created an entirely new set of challenges for teachers, as they not only had to navigate poor teaching conditions but also ensure proper funding. There were two types of teachers during this time: the litterator (primary teacher) required no special training and made very little money per student, while the Grammaticus (more advanced teacher) made around four times the money per student. This divide further drove the inequitable access to education for students and the uneven working conditions that teachers experienced at the time. As a whole, students had to be proactive about their education. In order to be engaged during sessions, students would need to bring several different materials to foster learning. This included waxed tablets for writing on, sponges for erasing, knives for sharpening reeds, reeds for writing, a case for carrying all materials, and anything else the student may desire (McCormack, 2023). For the most part, students made do with whatever was available to them, whether that was broken pieces of pottery, wood, sheets sewn together, or anything else they could gain access to. In all, students and teachers alike had to work together to create environments where education could take place.   Middle Ages The Middle Ages were a period of time that experienced many setbacks, with education being something largely overlooked. For many who wanted to receive an education, they had to go to monasteries or cathedral schools. Boys who were set to become knights would be fostered in other knights’ homes, learning their martial skills, and noble girls would either receive instruction from nuns or tutors in the home (Cybulskie, 2023). Throughout school, students mostly learned grammar, logic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Like earlier periods, students would take notes, primarily using wax tablets. With limited access to tablets, students would have to memorize large portions of the information taught to them. This led to mostly oral exams, allowing students to practice speaking while being tested on key information.   When students were finished with school, most would either move directly into a career or pursue further education at a university. Universities offered courses and information not otherwise available, including law and medicine. This standard is observed to this day, with law and medical school being separate from undergraduate programs. Rather than being the large buildings universities are now, they were formerly gatherings of people coming together to learn from individual scholars (Cybulskie, 2023). Throughout Europe, there were several influential universities that students could attend. Most notable is Oxford University. As universities grew, problems arose in many towns and cities where the universities existed. Non-student citizens often did not enjoy students coming in and taking over their cities, leading to disputes and fights. Cambridge University was created as a result of one of these fights when students from Oxford left the city after the falling-out, creating their own school (Cybulskie, 2023). As a whole, as universities grew, people living in cities grew to be more accepting of the students, reducing the turbulent relationship that had existed early on.   Renaissance With the Renaissance being a period of rebirth, education experienced many developments. Building upon the work of the Middle Ages, this period began the expansion of the liberal arts degree, comprised of the trivium and quadrivium (Egan, 2019). The trivium was focused on grammar, with students learning the nature of language and how words impact society. The quadrivium was centered around mathematics and other applied forms of knowledge, all of which were aimed at giving students the skills to succeed after school.   While the basic infrastructure of education remained the same during this period, the major development was the number of new findings and the amount of information that could be taught. Earlier schools were limited by what was known of the world, but the Renaissance, with all of its brilliant minds, developed large amounts of information that could be taught. Da Vinci and others diving into the human body and its composition, Galileo making key scientific findings, and countless others adding to mathematics, medicine, philosophy, etc. This created a large well of new information that could now be taught to students, opening new career pathways and starting new courses that could be taken.   Modern Education As time passed onward after the Renaissance, the desire for knowledge and discoveries continued. With this, new teaching methods have been developed to suit the needs of all different types of students. Today, interactive learning technologies have taken over classrooms with teachers encouraging students to use tablets, online software, and other platforms (Kiplington, 2023). Online learning has grown every year, with a wide variety of programs being offered without individuals having to leave their homes. For example, individuals can obtain Associate's degrees, Bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees, other professional degrees and certificates, and even PhDs entirely online. This has changed the mode of information transfer as students no longer need to be present, listening to a speaker to gain knowledge. Instead, many can watch recorded videos, perform Google searches, and more, without ever having to speak face-to-face with a teacher. With this, testing methods have evolved from mostly oral exams to online exams and written papers. Additionally, portfolios for creative projects and presentations continue to be a popular form of assessing a student’s knowledge and understanding of a particular topic.   Today, in many areas around the globe, both boys and girls attend school at a young age, sharing classrooms and learning the same material. The standardization of education plans has also helped ensure that students in different areas are learning similar information, setting them up for success in their careers or at university. Additionally, educational programs like special education and continuing education allow for new methods of learning that were not previously available. Special education emphasizes that all students, regardless of ability, have a right to education, promoting a more inclusive education system (Kiplington, 2023). Continuing education fosters lifelong learning, with adults being encouraged to regularly learn new skills and continuously become the best version of themselves that they can be.   Conclusion Throughout the ages, education has evolved from informal settings where priests and tutors facilitated teaching to complex, technology-driven models of learning. As civilizations made new advancements and discoveries, education was regularly updated to reflect those new understandings. This has led to the continuous adaptation of education. Historical developments, technological innovations, and educational reforms have expanded access, diversified teaching methods, and redefined the purpose of education. As societies move into the future and continue to make discoveries, education will change with it, becoming what is needed for society to continue advancing.   Sources Cybulskie, D. (2023, June 5). Education in the Middle Ages . Medievalists.net . https://www.medievalists.net/2023/06/education-middle-ages/ Donn, L. (n.d.). Education in Ancient Greece - Ancient Greece for Kids . Greece.mrdonn.org . https://greece.mrdonn.org/education.html#google_vignette Egan, P. (2019, February 1). Renaissance Education: Looking to the Past to Chart a Course for Education Today • Educational Renaissance . Educational Renaissance. https://educationalrenaissance.com/2019/02/01/renaissance-education-looking-to-the-past-to-chart-a-course-for-education-today/ history tools. (2024, June 24). Tracing the Origins of Education: Where Did the First Schools Emerge? - History Tools . History Tools. https://www.historytools.org/school/tracing-the-origins-of-education-where-did-the-first-schools-emerge#google_vignette Kiplington, T. (2023, July 23). What has changed in education in the last 100 years?   Waysideparents.org . https://waysideparents.org/what-has-changed-in-education-in-the-last-100-years McCormack, L. K. C. (2023, April 24). Roman Education . World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2224/roman-education/ The Archaeologist. (2025, March 7). The Role of Education in Ancient Egypt . The Archaeologist. https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/the-role-of-education-in-ancient-egypt#google_vignette

The SASA Archaeological Terms and Translations project serves as a free student resource. It is an easy access list of terms and phrases that are common in archaeology and academia. Whether you're deep in an excavation trench, decoding ancient languages or even just reading journal articles, knowing the right terminology can make or break your understanding of the past. That's why SASA translation guides are so important in making archaeology more accessible for students, researchers and professionals across the globe. PDF's available for download under SASA > Resources > Archaeological Vocabulary What Is the SASA Archaeological Terms and Translations Project? Designed especially for students and professionals, it offers concise translations and definitions of excavation and research terms (meaning those that show up constantly in scholarly articles, site reports, and fieldwork). You can download these guides under Resources > Archaeological Vocabulary on the SASA website What’s in These Translation Guides? Each language guide contains hundreds of commonly used terms, sorted into categories such as: Surface/soil types Excavation features Finds and materials Drawing and measuring vocabulary Excavation tools Key adjectives and verbs Numismatic terminology Plant and animal species Some terms come with short definitions, especially for jargon or context-specific meanings. The goal is clarity and usability, perfect for brushing up before a dig or while translating a site report. Available Languages Version 1.0 of the project offers PDFs in: Modern Greek German French Italian Arabic Spanish Hindi Japanese And now, SASA is proud to announce two new additions: Mandarin Chinese Turkish Future Plans SASA plans to expand these tools with additional languages in the near future. We welcome feedback from the public on how to improve this resource, and we will periodically update these files. Please e-mail Access Team leader, Dr. John Haberstroh ( jhaberstroh@saveancientstudies.org ) for any comments or questions, or if you would like to contribute to this project.